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Q. 


THE  WEST  INDIES 


THE  STORV  OF  THE  NATlOS&DFWr    .,^ 

ao,.      .      ^  'HOSTEL 

PA, as 

THE  WEST  INEJmS*— - 


A  HISTORY  OF  THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  WEST  INDIAN 

ARCHIPELAGO,  TOGETHER  WITH  AN  ACCOUNT 

OF  THEIR  PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

NATURAL    RESOURCES,    AND 

PRESENT  CONDITION 


BY 


AMOS  KIDDER  HSKE,  A.M. 

AUTHOR   OF    "the   JEWISH   SCRIPTURES,"    "  THE    MYTHS    OF 
ISRAEL,"    ETC. 


NEW  YORK 

G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 

LONDON:  T.  FISHER  UNWIN 
1902 


'^^•^'1 


Copyright,  1899 

BY 

AMOS  KIDDER  FISKE 


Ube  'Knicfeecbociier  press,  "new  Ueth 


PREFACE 


THE  ev^ents  of  the  past  year  have  begotten,  at 
least  in  the  United  States,  a  new  and  keener 
interest,  not  only  in  Cuba  and  Puerto  Rico,  but  in  all 
of  that  great  group  of  American  islands  which  still  re- 
main so  largely  under  European  control.  They  are 
looked  upon  and  thought  about  from  a  new  point  of 
view,  in  consequence  of  the  sudden  facing  of  the 
nation  in  a  new  direction;  and,  in  order  to  satisfy 
the  freshly  awakened  interest,  information  about 
them  needs  to  be  presented  with  an  arrangement 
and  perspective,  and  in  a  proportion  as  to  detail, 
adapted  to  a  changed  situation. 

Apart  from  this  consideration  of  a  novel  require- 
ment, in  all  the  Hterature  about  the  West  Indies  that 
has  appeared  in  the  past  it  is  hard  to  find  a  system- 
atic account,  good  even  for  its  time,  of  all  the  islands 
regarded  as  a  whole  and  in  their  relation  to  each 
other.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  such  an  ac- 
count, at  once  full  and  compact,  authoritative  and 
popular,  and  calculated  to  give  a  satisfactory  view 
of  the  whole  subject,  does  not  exist.  The  older  his- 
tories, like  Coke's,  Southey's,  and  Edwards's,  are  not 
only  out  of  date,  but  were  written  from  an  English 


IV  PREFA  CE 

point  of  view,  giving  prominence  to  British  colonial 
interests,  and  containing  details  of  little  moment 
now.  Some  later  works,  like  Eden's  West  Indies, 
have  a  similar  fault  of  disproportion  with  meagre- 
ness  of  detail  in  everything  not  English.  The  later 
Spanish  works  relate  wholly  to  the  Spanish  colonies, 
"  now  no  more." 

There  are  many  books  relating  to  one  island  or 
group  of  islands,  or  to  some  special  interest  or  phase 
of  life  in  the  archipelago,  and  many  that  are  mere 
sketches  of  the  observations,  often  very  interesting, 
of  travellers  seeking  novelty  and  adventure.  Books 
on  Cuba  are  numerous,  but  most  of  those  of  recent 
date  treat  it  with  special  reference  to  the  struggle 
for  independence,  and  furnish  little  systematic  in- 
formation about  its  history,  physical  aspects,  and 
permanent  conditions.  This,  however,  cannot  be 
said  of  the  useful  little  volume,  The  Island  of  Cuba, 
by  Rowan  and  Ramsay,  though  it  gives  little 
attention  to  any  but  recent  history.  The  earlier 
books,  like  Hazard's  Cuba  with  Pen  and  Pencil,  and 
Gallenga's  Pearl  of  the  Antilles,  which  aim  to  furnish 
more  or  less  systematic  information,  though  not  very 
old,  seem  now  rather  remote;  and  the  sketches  of 
Dana,  Ballou,  Carleton,  and  others  are  mainly  nar- 
ratives of  personal  observation. 

Jamaica  is  treated  in  a  full  and,  for  their  day,  an 
interesting  manner  in  yidirim  s,  History  of  the  British 
Colonies,  Bryan  Edwards's  British  Colonics  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  Sir  S.  D.  Scott's  To  Jamaica  and 
Back,  to  say  nothing  of  Michael  Scott's  fascinating 
pictures  in  Tom  Cringle' s  Log ;  but  there  is  more  of 


PRE FA CE  V 

Jamaica  in  these  special  works  than  is  wanted  in  a 
general  view  of  the  West  Indies,  and  none  of  them 
presents  the  real  latter-day  aspect  of  the  subject. 
Santo  Domingo  and  Haiti  have  received  much  atten- 
tion in  the  past  on  account  of  the  interesting  phases 
of  life  and  political  experience  there,  and  Hazard's 
Santo  Domingo  Past  and  Present  and  Keim's  Life  in 
Santo  Domingo  are  calculated  to  gratify  the  larger 
curiosity  on  that  subject,  while  Sir  Spenser  St.  John 
furnishes  a  graphic,  if  rather  dark,  picture  in  his 
Hayti,  or  The  Black  Republic,  the  fruit  of  a  long  resi- 
dence amid  the  scenes  described.  If  a  people  which 
has  no  history  or  whose  annals  are  brief  is  necessarily 
happy,  our  newly  acquired  subjects  in  Puerto  Rico 
ought  to  be  cheerful  and  contented.  Probably  more 
has  been  written  in  English  about  that  island  in  the 
last  eight  months  than  in  a  century  before,  and  yet 
only  meagre  information  is  to  be  gleaned  from  the 
mass.  Puerto  Rico  is  yet  to  be  "  developed  "  in  a 
literary  as  well  as  a  material  sense.  Its  history  is 
really  scanty,  and  its  present  condition  and  future 
possibilities  are  yet  to  be  studied  with  care. 

The  Bahamas  and  the  Caribbees  have  a  peculiar 
charm  for  the  vacation  voyager,  and  the  delight  one 
has  in  going  from  a  northern  winter  into  the  genial 
glow  of  the  tropics  at  their  best,  has  led  many 
writers  to  describe  the  scenery  and  the  life  of  this 
long  and  fascinating  range  of  islands.  Drysdale's 
In  Sjinny  Lands  and  Ives's  Isles  of  Summer  give 
especially  cheerful  pictures  of  the  Bahamas,  while 
McKinnen's  Description  of  the  Bahama  Islands  pre- 
sents a  more  sedate  view.     No  one  can  think  of  the 


vi  PREFACE 

Lesser  Antilles  "  without  having  scenes  from 
Charles  Kingsley's  At  Last  come  vividly  to  his 
mind,  but  Kingsley  only  caught  glimpses  of  the 
charm  from  St.  Thomas  to  Grenada,  and  spent  his 
real  Christmas  vacation  in  Trinidad,  which  he  makes 
others  see  even  as  he  saw  it.  Froude's  observations 
were  confined  mainly  to  Barbados,  Trinidad,  and 
Jamaica;  and  though  in  his  English  in  the  West 
Indies  he  was  chiefly  concerned  with  the  problem  of 
government  in  the  British  colonies,  he  gives  some 
lively  views  of  places  and  people.  Of  those  whose 
chief  purpose  has  been  to  describe  what  they  saw  on 
vacation  trips  are  W.  A.  Baton  in  his  Down  the 
Islaiids  and  C.  A.  Stoddard  in  Cruising  among  the 
Caribbees.  Lafcadio  Hearn's  Tivo  Years  iti  the  French 
West  Indies,  as  the  title  implies,  is  more  than  the 
narrative  of  a  hasty  trip,  and  has  graphic  delinea- 
tions of  life  and  character,  mostly  in  Martinique. 
F.  A.  Ober's  Camps  in  the  Caribbees  has  the  attrac- 
tion of  scientific  observation  and  study  combined 
with  that  of  narratives  of  adventure  and  descriptions 
of  novel  scenes.  Regarding  the  historical  aspects  of 
the  subject,  the  same  writer's  In  the  Wake  of  Colwn- 
bus  is  not  to  be  forgotten,  for  it  presents  many  de- 
tails of  the  era  of  discovery  in  a  new  and  interesting 
light,  as  the  result  of  personally  tracing  the  course 
of  the  discoverer  in  his  voyaging  and  his  landings. 

The  present  writer  can  hardly  acknowledge  his 
indebtedness  to  any  one  authority,  except  to  state 
that  with  reference  to  the  physical  characteristics  of 
the  islands  and  the  surrounding  waters  and  circum- 
ambient air,  he  has  relied  largely  upon  the  chapters 


PREFACE  VI 1 

relating  to  the  West  Indies  in  Elis^e  Reclus's  mon- 
umental work,  The  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants,  and 
his  Physical  Geography.  For  historical  information 
he  has  gathered  from  a  great  variety  of  sources;  for 
general  description  he  has  accepted  aid  from  the  ob- 
servation of  many  trustworthy  witnesses,  and  for 
facts  and  statistics  he  has  sought  the  latest  and 
most  authentic  statements,  endeavouring  to  balance 
them  when  they  differed  by  the  exercise  of  what 
he  may  modestly  consider  a  trained  judgment.  His 
purpose  has  been  to  compress  within  the  compass 
of  one  moderate  volume,  and  yet  to  present  with 
adequate  form  and  colour  and  in  a  popular  style, 
the  information  about  the  West  Indies — their  his- 
tory and  physical  aspects,  their  natural  resources 
and  material  condition,  their  political  relations  and 
apparent  destiny — which  would  meet  the  needs  of 
that  numerous  but  undefinable  person,  the  "  general 
reader."  He  is  cognisant  of  many  omissions  and 
conscious  of  manifold  defects,  and  he  may  have 
fallen  into  errors  and  inaccuracies;  but  the  results 
of  his  conscientious  effort  are  submitted  in  the  hope 
that  they  will  prove  enlightening  as  well  as  inter- 
esting, and  will  at  least  not  be  misleading. 

A.  K.  F. 

New  York,  January,  iSgg, 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 


XIX. 


XX. 


THE  ARCHIPELAGO  OF  COLUMBUS 
ORIGIN  AND  PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS 
BEFORE  THE  "  DISCOVERY  " 
THE  PROCESS  OF  DISCOVERY 
SPANISH  POSSESSION  AND  ITS  EFFECT  . 
ROVING  TRADERS,  PRIVATEERS,  AND  PIRATES 
ENGLISH,   FRENCH,   AND  DUTCH  COLONISERS 
BUCCANEERS,   FREEBOOTERS,   AND  MAROONS 
FIGHTING  FOR  POSSESSION  .  .  .  . 

WEST  INDIAN  SLAVERY  .  .  .  . 

THE  BAHAMAS  OR  LUCAYAN  ISLANDS  . 
THE  PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  CUBA   . 
HISTORY      AND     SPANISH     GOVERNMENT     OF 
CUBA       ....... 

PROVINCES,   CITIES,   AND  TOWNS  OF  CUBA     . 
SOCIAL  AND  ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS  IN  CUBA 
REVOLUTIONARY  MOVEMENTS  IN  CUBA 
THE    ACHIEVEMENT    OF     CUBAN     INDEPEND- 
ENCE      ....... 

NATURAL      ASPECTS      AND       RESOURCES      OF 
JAMAICA  ...... 

HISTORY    AND    PRESENT    CONDITION    OF    JA- 
MAICA    ....... 

THE   ISLAND  OF  HAITI  .  .  ,  . 


PAGB 

I 

13 
24 

35 
51 
63 
71 
81 
92 
103 

115 
128 

141 

163 
172 

182 

199 

209 
225 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

XXI.        THE  REPUBLIC   OF  HAITI 
XXII.        THE  DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 

XXIII.  PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTICS    OF    PUERTO 

RICO  ..... 

XXIV.  PUERTO  RICO  IN  SPANISH  HANDS      . 
XXV.       PORTS  AND  TOWNS  OF   PUERTO  RICO 

XXVI.       GENERAL  CONDITIONS  IN  PUERTO  RICO 
XXVII.        PUERTO  RICO  IN  AMERICAN   HANDS 
XXVIII.        LESSER      ANTILLES,       CARIBBEES,        WIND 
WARD,     LEEWARD 
XXIX.       THE  VIRGINS  AND  THE  DANISH  ISLANDS 
XXX.       ANGUILLA,    ST.    MARTIN,    ST,    BARTHOLO 

MEW,   BARBUDA,   ANTIGUA 
XXXI.       SABA,   ST.   EUSTATIUS,    ST,    CHRISTOPHER 
NEVIS,   MONTSERRAT 
XXXII.       GUADELOUPE 

XXXIII.  DOMINICA        .  . 

XXXIV.  MARTINIQUE 
XXXV.       ST.    LUCIA  AND  ST.    VINCENT   . 

XXXVI.  THE  GRENADINES  AND  GRENADA 

XXXVII.  BARBADOS        .... 

XXXVIII.  TOBAGO  AND  TRINIDAD 

XXXIX.  OFF  THE  VENEZUELA  COAST     . 

XL.  THE  WEST  INDIAN  ENIGMA 


PACE 

266 

278 
284 

287 
293 

302 

318 
325 

338 
348 

355 
367 
Z^l 
389 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


GOVERNMENT    HOUSE,    CHARLOTTE     AMALIA,    SAINT 

THOMAS      ......      Frontispiece 

COLUMBUS    DISCOVERING     THE    VARIATION    OF     THE 

COMPASS      . -36 

From  Dc  Lorgne's  "  Columbus." 
DISCOVERY    OF    HISPANIOLA      .....  42 

From  Herrera's  ^'History  of  the  West  Indies." 
PORTRAIT    OF    COLUMBUS  .....  52 

From  the  painting  by  Sir  Antonio  Mora. 
MAP   OF   CUBA  .  .  .  .  .  .128 

THE    buccaneers'     FORT    AT    THE    MOUTH    OF    THE 

ALMENDARES    RIVER,    CUBA  ....  142 

HAVANA,    CUBA,    FROM    ACROSS    THE    BAY  .  .  152 

THE    PRADO    AND    INDIAN    STATUE,    HAVANA,    CUBA  T54 

OLD  ARCH  OF  THE  JUSUIT  COLLEGE,    HAVANA,  CUBA  156 

THE    PLAZA,    CIENFUEGOS,    CUBA       ....  158 

MORRO    CASTLE,    SANTIAGO   DE   CUBA        .  .  .  160 

COURTYARD    OF    CUBAN    HOUSE  ....  164 

NATIVE   CANDY    SELLER,    HAVANA,    CUBA  .  .  170 

ON    THE    ROAD    TO    CASTLETON,    JAMAICA  .  .  204 

AT    THE    FOUNTAIN,     JAMAICA  ....  2IO 

KINGSTON    AND    HARBOR,    JAMAICA  .  .  .  220 

THE  OLD  ASSEMBLY  ROOMS,  SPANISH  TOWN,  JAMAICA  222 

ISLAND    OF    HAITI    (sOUTH    SIDe)       ....  228 

xi 


Xll 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


ISLAND    OF    HAITI    (nORTH    SIDe)      . 

port  au  prince,   haiti         .... 
map  of  jamaica,   haiti,   and  puerto  rico  and 

the  caribbean  islands   .... 
san  juan,   puerto  rico       .... 
old  gateway,  san  juan,  puerto  rico 
charlotte  amalia,  saint  thomas,  from  black 

beard's  castle  ..... 

BASSE    TERRE,    saint    CHRISTOPHER 

NEVIS    island  ...... 

BASSE-TERRE,    GAUDELOUPE    .... 

FORT-DE-FRANCE,    MARTINIQUE 

STATUE     OF     THE      EMPRESS     JOSEPHINE,      FORT-DE 

FRANCE,     MARTINIQUE  .... 

HOUSE     IN     WHICH      THE     EMPRESS     JOSEPHINE     WAS 

BORN,  MARTINIQUE  ..... 
THE  PITONS,  SAINT  LUCIA  .... 
KINGSTOWN,    SAINT    VINCENT 

SAINT  George's  and  bay,  Grenada    . 

TRAFALGAR    SQUARE,     BRIDGETOWN,    BARBADOS 
PORT-OF-SPAIN,     TRINIDAD        .... 
MAP    OF    THE    WEST    INDIFS      .... 


228 
248 

258 
274 
276 

294 

316 

322 

334 

338 
346 

354 
364 

382 

396 


THE  WEST  INDIES 


THE  WEST  INDIES 


CHAPTER  I 


THE   ARCHIPELAGO    OF   COLUMBUS 


IF  Columbus  had  not  made  a  huge  mistake  in 
underestimating  the  size  of  the  globe  and  in 
supposing  that  he  had  reached  the  Indies  when  he 
sighted  land  on  that  fortunate  Friday,  October  12, 
1492 ;  and  if  he  had  left  to  others  the  naming  of  the 
newly  discovered  domain,  after  its  extent  and  situa- 
tion on  the  face  of  the  earth  had  become  known, 
the  magnificent  archipelago  between  the  two  con- 
tinents of  America  might  have  borne  his  own  name. 
The  name  which  has  become  imbedded  in  four  cen- 
turies of  history  is  singularly  inappropriate,  but  can 
hardly  be  displaced  now.  India  was  the  land  of  the 
river  Indus  and  of  the  race  of  Hindus,  but  the  name 
had  been  variously  applied,  and  extended  to  differ- 
ent lands  about  the  Indian  Ocean,  including  the 
islands  of  the  sea;  and,  when  Columbus  sailed  west- 
ward, the  great  "  East  "  of  traffic  and  adventure  was 
known  as  "  the  Indies." 


2  THE   WEST  INDIES 

It  was  to  reach  that  region  for  gathering  worldly 
wealth  and  disseminating  the  "  true  faith,"  by  a 
shorter  route  than  the  old  one  around  the  African 
cape,  that  Columbus  sailed  westward ;  and  when  he 
came  to  land  he  supposed  that  he  had  attained  his 
goal.  Hence  he  called  the  native  people  ' '  Indians, 
and  the  lands  which  he  visited  he  spoke  of  as  "  the 
Indies."  Cuba,  whose  southern  coast  he  skirted  for 
hundreds  of  miles  without  coming  to  the  western 
limit,  he  believed  to  be  part  of  that  Cipango  whose 
Grand  Khan  he  had  determined  to  convert  to  Christ- 
ianity. The  Great  Navigator  died  in  his  errors, 
and  when,  among  later  discoveries,  the  truth  was 
found,  his  "  Indies  "  were  called  the  "  West  Indies  " 
to  distinguish  them  from  those  of  the  East,  instead 
of  being  called  the  Archipelago  of  Columbus  as  they 
might  have  been.  So  it  happened  that  the  word 
"  Indian  "  was  imposed  not  only  upon  the  natives 
of  the  islands  but  upon  the  aborigines  of  the  two 
American  continents  as  well. 

This  great  archipelago  is  the  barrier  which  divides 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  the  two  deep  basins  that 
constitute  the  American  Mediterranean.  But  for 
this,  the  larger  and  deeper  of  these,  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  would  not  exist  as  a  separate  expanse,  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  alone,  inclosed  by  the  peninsulas  of 
Florida  and  Yucatan,  would  be  divided  from  the 
ocean.  This  vast  island  barrier  sweeps  in  a  double 
curve  from  the  north-west,  from  about  30°  north  lati- 
tude, off  the  southern  part  of  Florida,  for  1800 
miles,  to  the  very  coast  of  South  America,  at  lati- 
tude 10°  north. 


THE  ARCHIPELAGO    OF  COLUMBUS  3 

It  will  be  well,  as  a  preliminary  to  our  study  of 
this  vast  domain  of  islands,  to  have  in  mind  an  out- 
line map  of  its  extent  and  of  its  main  features  as 
they  exist  to-day.  Starting  at  the  north,  we  have 
the  great  group  of  the  Bahamas,  beginning  scarcely 
a  hundred  miles  off  Jupiter  Inlet  on  the  Florida 
coast,  and  running  in  a  band  approximately  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  wide,  to  the  south-east  for 
about  seven  hundred  and  eighty  miles.  Their  num- 
ber has  been  variously  estimated,  and  if  we  include 
all  the  rocks  and  reefs  that  appear  and  disappear  on 
the  surface  of  the  water,  as  the  work  of  the  coral 
builders  grows  and  crumbles  away,  it  is  not  always 
the  same.  Including  every  bit  of  land  or  of  rock  at 
any  time  visible,  there  are  more  than  2000,  and  of 
those  which  can  fairly  be  called  islands  or  islets 
there  are  nearly  seven  hundred,  but  only  thirty-one 
are  inhabited.  The  total  area  of  the  group  is  gen- 
erally stated  at  5450  square  miles,  and  the  latest  sta- 
tistics give  the  aggregate  population  as  about  50,000. 

The  northernmost  island  nearest  the  Florida  coast 
is  the  Great  Bahama,  and  to  the  east  of  that  are  the 
Little  and  Great  Abaco.  Next  on  the  outer  or 
north-eastern  line  is  the  narrow,  crescent-shaped 
Eleuthera,  and  on  the  inner  or  south-western  verge 
the  triple  island  of  Andros,  the  largest  of  the  whole 
group,  containing,  indeed,  nearly  one  third  of  all  its 
dry  land.  Between  these  is  the  small  but  populous 
and  important  island  of  New  Providence,  containing 
Nassau,  the  capital  of  the  British  colony  of  the 
Bahamas.  Proceeding  again  on  the  outer  edge  we 
have  Cat  and  Watling,  and  on  the  other  side,  to  the 


4  THE   WEST  INDIES 

south-west,  Great  Exuma  and  Long,  with  Rum  Cay 
in  the  middle.  The  larger  islands  then  fall  into  a 
single  line,  with  numerous  "  Cays,"  or  "  Keys,"  on 
either  side,  and  the  principal  ones  in  order  are 
Crooked,  Acklin,  Mariguana,  the  Caicos,  and  the 
Turks,  with  Great  and  Little  Inagua  far  off  the  line 
to  the  south  toward  the  eastern  end  of  Cuba.  The 
water  among  these  islands  is  relatively  shallow,  ex- 
cept where  a  deep  chasm,  called  the  "  Tongue  of  the 
Ocean,"  runs  in  on  the  eastern  side  of  Andros  to- 
ward New  Providence,  but  it  deepens  to  looo  fath- 
oms between  the  great  submarine  plateau  on  which 
they  stand  and  the  northern  coast  of  Cuba. 

Before  Columbus's  time  there  were  legends  of  a 
land  far  out  in  the  Atlantic,  called  Antilla,  or  An- 
tiglia.  Sometimes  it  was  represented  as  one  large 
island,  sometimes  as  an  archipelago,  and  its  place 
was  a  shifting  one  on  the  ancient  charts.  The  very 
year  that  Columbus  reported  his  first  discoveries  in 
Spain  (1493),  Peter  Martyr  d'Anghiera  spoke  of 
these  islands  as  the  Antilles,  and  the  name  has  been 
applied  to  a  part  of  them  ever  since.  As  the  Span- 
iards made  no  use  of  the  Bahamas,  except  to  kidnap 
their  inhabitants  for  slaves,  the  name  did  not  attach 
to  them.  The  four  great  islands,  stretching  from 
the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  eastward  for 
more  than  1300  miles,  far  beyond  the  last  bank  and 
shoal  of  the  Bahamas,  and  forming  the  northern 
side  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  were  called  the  Greater 
Antilles,  while  the  lower  curve  of  the  archipelago, 
which  forms  the  eastern  barrier  of  that  great  basin, 
was  called  the  Lesser  Antilles. 


THE  ARCHIPELAGO    OF  COLUMBUS  5 

The  western  end  of  Cuba,  separated  by  a  deep 
channel  from  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  half  closes 
the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  island 
stretches  eastward  more  than  seven  hundred  miles, 
measured  straight  across  the  meridians,  and  nearly 
nine  hundred  following  the  curve  of  its  axis.  It 
has  an  area  of  about  48,000  square  miles,  which  is 
substantially  one  half  that  of  the  whole  archipelago, 
its  mean  width  being  about  sixty  miles.  Before  the 
ravages  of  the  last  insurrection  its  population  was 
reckoned  at  1,650,000.  South  of  the  eastern  end 
of  Cuba  and  about  one  hundred  miles  away  is  Ja- 
maica, third  in  size  of  the  islands.  Its  length  is  one 
hundred  and  forty  miles,  and  its  maximum  width 
fortynine.  Its  area  is  4218  square  miles,  and  its 
population  635,000,  according  to  the  latest  statistics. 
The  Cayman  Islands,  to  the  south  of  Cuba  and  west 
of  Jamaica,  belong  geographically  to  the  former  and 
politically  to  the  latter.  The  second  in  extent  of  all 
the  islands  is  Haiti,  or  Santo  Domingo,  to  the  east  of 
Cuba  and  separated  from  it  by  the  Windward  Pas- 
sage. It  is  four  hundred  and  seven  miles  long,  and 
has  a  maximum  width  of  one  hundred  and  sixty 
miles.  Its  area  is  28,249  square  miles,  and  its  in- 
habitants number  1,610,000.  Eastward,  across  the 
Mona  Passage  from  Santo  Domingo,  is  the  island  of 
Puerto  Rico,  last  and  smallest  of  the  Greater  Antil- 
les. It  is  about  one  hundred  and  eight  miles  long, 
and  thirty-seven  wide,  contains  an  area  of  3550 
square  miles,  and  has  over  806,000  inhabitants. 

The  Bahamas  and  the  Greater  Antilles  together, 
starting  on  either  side  of  the  lower  end  of  Florida 


6  THE   WEST  INDIES 

with  a  breadth  of  six  hundred  miles,  converge  to  a 
point  like  a  wedge  at  the  eastern  end  of  Puerto  Rico. 
Just  beyond  that  point  are  the  two  small  islands 
of  Vieques  (Crab)  and  Culebra  (Snake),  belonging 
to  Puerto  Rico,  and  then  a  group  called  the  Vir- 
gins, which  belongs  geologically  to  the  same  system 
by  submarine  connection  though  classed  with  the 
Lesser  Antilles,  With  a  distinct  and  comparatively 
deep-water  separation  from  the  Virgins  begins  a 
double  chain  of  islands,  varying  in  size  and  form  but 
tending  to  an  oval,  with  the  longer  axis  in  line  with 
the  chain,  which  stretches  in  a  graceful  curve  like  a 
string  of  jewels  in  the  glittering  sea  three  hundred 
and  seventy  miles  to  Grenada.  Then  there  is  another 
deep  and  distinct  separation  from  Barbados  on  the 
east  and  from  Tobago  and  Trinidad  on  the  south, 
which  are  also  classed  with  the  Lesser  Antilles, 
though  not  belonging  geographically  to  the  same 
system.  Barbados  is  strictly  isolated,  and  Tobago 
and  Trinidad  belong  by  submarine  connection  to  the 
South  American  continent. 

This  long  group  or  chain  of  islands  forming  the 
barrier  between  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  open 
ocean  was  called  by  the  Spaniards  the  Windward 
Islands,  because  they  stood  against  the  prevailing 
north-east  trade-winds ;  and  in  contradistinction,  the 
group  strung  along  the  Venezuela  coast,  which  in- 
cludes three  now  called  "  Dutch  West  Indies,"  was 
called  the  Leeward  Islands.  These  latter,  like  To- 
bago and  Trinidad,  are  projections  of  the  submarine 
extension  of  South  America.  The  English  in  their 
colonial  system  have   misused   the  terms  "  Wind- 


THE  ARCHIPELAGO   OF  COLUMBUS  y 

ward  "  and  "  Leeward,"  applying  the  latter  to  the 
islands  belonging  to  their  sovereignty  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  and  the  former  to  those 
in  the  southern  part.  The  whole  chain  is  some- 
times, and  most  appropriately,  called  the  Caribbees, 
from  the  aboriginal  inhabitants. 

Let  us  run  rapidly  down  this  long  line,  noting  the 
principal  islands  on  the  way,  to  complete  our  mental 
map  of  the  great  American  archipelago.  It  may  be 
well  to  observe,  in  passing,  the  political  connection 
of  each  island  that  comes  under  notice  ;  and  to  make 
that  view  complete  we  will  recall  that  the  Bahamas 
and  Jamaica  belong  to  Great  Britain,  that  until  the 
war  of  1898  Cuba  and  Puerto  Rico  were  colonies  of 
Spain,  and  that  the  island  of  Haiti,  or  Santo  Do- 
mingo, consists  of  the  two  independent  republics  of 
Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo-,  the  former  occupying  the 
western  end  of  the  island  with  an  area  of  10,204 
square  miles  and  a  population  of  about  £,000,000, 
and  the  latter  comprising  the  central  and  eastern 
parts,  with  an  area  of  18,045  square  miles  and  610,- 
000  inhabitants. 

Coming  back  to  the  east  of  Puerto  Rico,  we  regain 
the  group  of  islands  which  Columbus  called  "  The 
Virgins  "  because,  it  is  said,  they  were  first  observed 
on  St.  Ursula's  day,  reminding  him  of  the  proces- 
sion of  11,000  maidens  who  shared  the  fate  of  the 
Virgin  martyr,  according  to  the  legend.  Santa 
Cruz  is  included  with  this  group,  though  it  lies  off 
by  itself  toward  the  south,  and  by  its  submarine 
connection  is  rather  an  outpost  of  the  great  Carib- 
bean range.     It  has  an  area  of  seventy-four  square 


8  THE   WEST  INDIES 

miles  and  a  population  of  18,400,  and  belongs  to 
Denmark,  as  do  the  two  islands  of  St.  Thomas  and 
St.  John,  within  the  group.  St.  Thomas  is  commer- 
cially the  most  important,  and  has  an  area  of  twenty- 
three  square  miles  and  a  population  of  14,400. 
St.  John,  with  an  area  of  twenty-one  square  miles, 
has  less  than  1000  inhabitants.  The  other  three 
Virgins  which  are  more  than  rocks  and  reefs  are 
Tortola,  Virgin  Gorda,  and  Anegada,  and  belong  to 
Great  Britain,  being  included  in  the  colony  of  the 

Leeward  Islands."  Their  combined  area  is  fifty- 
eight  square  miles  and  their  population  about  5000. 

It  is  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  the  Virgin 
group  to  the  nearest  island  of  the  chain  which  con- 
stitutes the  Caribbees,  or  the  Lesser  Antilles  proper, 
and  the  intervening  passage  attains  a  depth  of 
1000  fathoms,  making  the  physical  severance  com- 
plete. At  the  beginning  of  the  long  chain  are  the 
barren  rocks,  one  called  Sombrero,  from  its  resem- 
blance to  a  conical  grey  hat  floating  on  the  water, 
and  the  others  "  Dogs,"  from  an  appearance  like  a 
pack  of  hounds  in  full  cry.  These  outlying  rocks 
are  appurtenant  to  the  British  island  Anguilla,  w^hich 
has  the  considerable  population  of  12,000,  with  an 
area  of  thirty-five  square  miles.  Next  to  it,  on  the 
south,  is  St.  Martin,  which  is  politically  divided  be- 
tween France  and  Holland  in  the  proportion  of 
twenty-one  square  miles  of  territory  and  3500  inhabi- 
tants to  the  former  and  seventeen  square  miles  and 
4500  people  to  the  latter.  To  the  south-east  of  this 
is  the  French  island  of  St.  Bartholomew,  or  St.  Bart, 
as  it  is  sometimes  called,  a  crescent  six  miles  long. 


THE  ARCHIPELAGO   OF  COLUMBUS  9 

having  an  area  of  only  eight  square  miles,  and  a 
population  stated  as  over  2600. 

From  this  point  the  double  character  of  the  chain 
of  islands  becomes  distinctly  marked,  and  we  have 
Barbuda  on  the  easterly  line,  which  is  connected 
politically  with  Antigua  directly  south  of  it.  They 
are  British  property,  and  Antigua  is  an  island  of 
some  consequence  in  the  Leeward  colony,  having  a 
population  of  35,000  within  its  area  of  one  hundred 
and  eight  square  miles.  Barbuda,  however,  with  an 
area  m.ore  than  half  as  great,  has  less  than  1000  in- 
habitants. West  of  these,  in  the  other  strand  of  the 
chain,  are  the  Dutch  islands  of  Saba  and  St.  Eusta- 
tius.  To  the  south-east  of  these  in  the  same  line 
are  St.  Christopher,  or  St.  Kitt's,  and  Nevis,  and 
then  Montserrat,  all  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  St. 
Kitt's  has  an  area  of  sixty-five  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  45,000,  Nevis  fifty  square  miles  of  ter- 
ritory and  12,000  inhabitants,  and  Montserrat  thirty- 
two  square  miles  and  10,000  people. 

This  brings  us  to  the  French  island  of  Guadeloupe, 
the  largest  in  area  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  if  we  leave 
out  the  really  South  American  island  of  Trinidad. 
It  is  in  effect  two  islands  separated  by  a  narrow 
passage,  and  in  it  the  strands  of  the  chain  come  to- 
gether as  in  a  double  clasp.  It  has  an  area  of  six 
hundred  square  miles  and  a  population  of  135,600, 
and  belonging  with  it  politically  and  physically  are 
the  outlying  islands  of  Desirade  on  the  east,  Marie 
Galante  to  the  south-east,  and  the  Saintes  directly 
south  of  its  western  half.  Desirade  has  but  ten 
square  miles  of  land  and  1400  inhabitants,  but  Marie 


lO  THE   WEST  INDIES 

Galante  possesses  an  area  of  sixty-five  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  nearly  14,000.  The  little  cluster 
of  "  Saintes,"  with  its  six  square  miles  of  surface, 
has  1900  people,  consisting  partly  of  the  occupants 
of  a  military  and  naval  station. 

Between  Guadeloupe  and  the  other  important 
French  island  of  Martinique,  which  lies  a  little  east 
of  south,  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  away, 
is  Dominica,  the  largest  of  the  British  possessions  in 
the  Lesser  Antilles,  if  again  we  omit  Trinidad. 
With  all  those  to  the  north  of  it  belonging  to  Great 
Britain,  it  is  a  member  of  the  Leeward  colony.  It 
has  an  area  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  30,000.  The  area  of  Martinique 
is  four  hundred  square  miles  and  its  population  over 
177,000,  making  it  the  most  populous  and  important 
of  the  French  West  Indies,  though  not  so  large  as 
Guadeloupe. 

The  remaining  islands  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  be- 
long to  Great  Britain,  and  except  Barbados  and 
Trinidad,  which  have  colonial  governments  of  their 
own,  constitute  the  colony  of  the  "  Windward 
Islands,"  Nearest  to  Martinique  and  directly  south 
of  it  is  St.  Lucia,  with  an  area  of  two  hundred  and 
forty-five  square  miles  and  a  population  of  45,000, 
and  farther  south  and  slightly  westward  from  the 
direct  line  is  St.  Vincent,  with  one  hundred  and 
twenty-two  square  miles  of  surface  and  48,000  peo- 
ple. Barbados  lies  by  itself,  one  hundred  miles  to 
the  east,  and  is  surrounded  by  deep  water.  It  is,  in 
fact,  an  oceanic  island,  having  no  direct  submarine 
connection  with  the  chain  of  the  Caribbees  or  with 


THE  ARCHIPELAGO    OF  COLUMBUS  II 

the  southern  continent  except  the  deep  bed  of  the 
Atlantic.  Its  area  is  one  hundred  and  sixty-six 
square  miles,  and  it  has  over  180,000  inhabitants. 
Grenada,  a  little  to  the  west  of  south  from  St.  Vin- 
cent and  eighty  miles  away,  with  the  long  cluster 
of  the  Grenadines  strung  in  the  interval,  properly 
terminates  the  Caribbean  chain.  Grenada  and  the 
Grenadines  together  have  an  area  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty  square  miles  and  50,000  inhabitants. 

There  is  a  stretch  of  deep  water  nearly  a  hundred 
miles  wide  between  Grenada  and  Trinidad,  of  which 
Tobago  is  an  outlying  spur,  coming  to  the  surface 
like  a  gigantic  spear-head  off  its  north-eastern  angle. 
As  has  already  been  said,  these  two  islands  have 
their  submarine  attachment  with  the  terra  firma  of 
South  America,  close  to  which  the  larger  one  lies, 
but  in  the  geographies  they  are  part  of  the  British 
West  Indies.  Tobago,  which  is  politically  attached 
to  the  Windward  colony,  has  an  area  of  one  hundred 
and  fourteen  square  miles  and  a  population  of  18,- 
400.  Trinidad  is  a  colony  by  itself,  and  in  size 
comes  next  to  Puerto  Rico.  Its  area  is  1754  square 
miles,  and  its  population  something  over  200,000. 

We  are  compelled  to  take  notice  of  the  Dutch 
West  Indies  which  lie  off  the  coast  of  Venezuela, 
though  they  pertain  to  the  South  American  system 
as  completely  as  the  other  members  of  the  old  Span- 
ish Leeward  group,  which  now  belong  to  Venezuela 
because  nobody  had  succeeded  in  wresting  them 
from  Spain  before  her  South  American  colonies 
gained  their  independence.  She  had,  however,  lost 
these  three  islands  to  the  Dutch,  and  they  are  now 


12  THE   WEST  INDIES 

reckoned  with  the  West  Indies:  Buen  Aire,  or  Bo- 
naire, Curasao,  and  Aruba.  Curasao  is  the  largest 
and  by  far  the  most  populous.  Its  area  is  two  hun- 
dred and  twenty  square  miles  and  its  population 
26,000.  Buen  Aire,  to  the  east  of  it,  has  two  hun- 
dred and  fourteen  square  miles  of  land  and  only 
about  5000  inhabitants,  while  Aruba,  to  the  west, 
has  nearly  8000  people  within  its  area  of  sixty-six 
square  miles. 

The  statistics  given  above,  drawn  from  the  latest 
authentic  sources,  are  probably  not  exact,  for  author- 
ities do  not  agree,  and  in  no  one  authority  do  the 
details  and  the  aggregates  precisely  correspond. 
But  it  is  close  to  the  truth  to  say  that  the  entire 
land  area  of  the  West  Indies  is  95,000  square  miles, 
of  which  nearly  85,000  is  in  the  Greater  Antilles, 
and  of  that  about  48,000  in  the  island  of  Cuba  alone. 
Of  the  rest  more  than  half  is  contained  in  the  Baha- 
mas, and  the  total  area  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  in- 
cluding the  Virgins  and  Trinidad  and  Tobago,  and 
even  the  three  Dutch  islands  of  the  Venezuelan 
coast,  is  a  trifle  less  than  5000  square  miles.  The 
aggregate  population  of  the  archipelago  is  about 
5,750,000,  of  which  more  than  4, 500,000  is  contained 
in  the  Greater  Antilles.  The  Bahamas  are  sparsely 
peopled  with  a  little  over  50,000  souls,  while  the 
Lesser  Antilles,  including  the  outlying  islands  at 
either  end  of  the  long  chain,  contain  about  1,200,000 
inhabitants. 


CHAPTER  II 


ORIGIN   AND    PHYSICAL   CHARACTERISTICS 


IT  is  a  familiar  scientific  fact  that  far  back  in  the 
geological  ages  the  crust  of  the  earth  was  subject 
to  upheaval  and  subsidence  under  the  cooling  pro- 
cess, which  resulted  in  enormous  changes  of  level  in 
the  surface  remaining  above  water.  The  changes 
were  greatest  and  lasted  longest  in  the  equatorial 
regions,  where  the  globe's  diameter  transverse  to  its 
axis  was  greatest,  and  where  the  radiation  of  inter- 
nal heat  was  slowest. 

It  is  the  latest  scientific  opinion  that  in  those  ages 
of  "  the  dark  backward  and  abysm  of  time,"  there 
was  a  great  upheaval  of  land  where  this  archipelago 
now  is,  which  made  it  substantially,  if  not  absolutely, 
a  continuation  of  the  continents,  with  broad  plains 
upon  the  west,  occupying  most  of  the  two  basins  of 
the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  There 
was  an  ocean  connection  with  this  land  from  the  Pa- 
cific, over  one  or  more  of  the  depressions  where  now 
are  the  isthmuses  of  Tehuantepec,  Nicaragua,  and 
Panama,  for  the  level  of  the  western  verge  of  the  con- 
tinent was  lower  than  it  is  at  present.     In  later  ages 

13 


14  THE   WEST  INDIES 

there  was  a  tilting  of  this  broad  tract  of  the  earth's 
crust,  which  Hfted  the  side  now  occupied  by  the 
Cordilleras  and  sank  the  region  of  the  Antilles  to  a 
level  even  lower  than  that  of  the  present  time. 
Then  the  plains,  which  may  have  had  lakes  in  their 
central  depressions,  were  converted  into  the  basins 
of  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the 
plateaus  became  the  higher  levels  of  the  ocean  floor, 
while  the  valleys  between  them,  and  the  caftons 
and  ravines  by  which  they  were  cleft,  were  chasms 
in  the  great  deep,  and  only  the  mountain  ridges  and 
peaks  were  left  above  the  expanse  of  waters  as 
islands  of  varying  form  and  extent.  There  is  geo- 
logical evidence  that  after  the  great  subsidence  there 
was  a  gradual  lifting,  at  least  of  a  part  of  this  tract, 
toward  the  older  level. 

The  plateau  upon  whose  elevations  and  projections 
the  Bahamas  are  built  is  a  continuation  of  the  North 
American  continent,  and  stretches  from  Florida  east- 
ward about  three  hundred  miles,  with  a  level  no- 
where more  than  3500  feet  below  the  water  surface 
until  it  reaches  the  outer  edge,  where  a  steep  escarp- 
ment dips  abruptly  to  the  ocean  depths  of  12,000 
feet  and  more.  Upon  this  are  banks  and  ridges 
and  mounds,  some  of  which  come  to  the  surface  as 
islands,  or  near  enough  for  the  polyps  to  build  their 
coral  structures  to  the  sunlight  and  make  isles  and 
reefs  and  calcareous  rocks ;  and  here  and  there  the 
plateau  is  seamed  with  valleys,  some  of  which  are 
old  extensions  of  river  beds  of  the  continei^t,  and  is 
cut  by  deep  fiords  which  were  formed  when  the 
whole  region  was  above  the  water-level.     The  high- 


ORIGIN  AND  PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTICS      1 5 

est  culmination  now  is  about  three  hundred  and 
eighty  feet  on  Cat  Island. 

The  plateau  of  the  Bahamas  slopes  off  to  the 
south  into  the  Old  Bahama  Channel  near  the  eastern 
end  of  Cuba  to  a  depth  of  6000  feet,  and  to  more 
than  5000  north  of  the  western  part  of  the  great 
island.  The  Florida  Straits  have  scarcely  a  third  of 
this  depth,  but  they  deepen  and  widen  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  whose  basin  is  some  12,000  feet  in  depth 
near  the  middle.  The  Yucatan  Channel  is  about 
6000  feet  deep  off  the  western  end  of  Cuba,  but  rises 
to  higher  levels  toward  the  opposite  peninsula,  while 
the  western  section  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  sometimes 
called  the  Sea  of  Honduras,  sinks  to  vast  depths. 
There  is  a  submarine  ridge  extending  west  from 
Cape  Cruz  on  the  south  coast  of  Cuba  which  comes 
to  the  surface  in  the  Cayman  Islands.  South  of  this 
is  a  pit  in  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  20,000  feet  deep, 
measured  from  the  surface  of  the  water.  Another 
broad  ridge  extends  from  Cape  Tiburon,  Haiti, 
through  Jamaica  and  on  toward  Cape  Gracias  k  Dios 
at  the  angle  of  Central  America,  where  Honduras 
and  Nicaragua  meet,  and  from  that  ridge  the  bottom 
slopes  gradually  to  the  south-east  into  the  Caribbean 
depths  of  1 5,000  feet.  The  deepest  place  in  all  these 
waters,  one  of  the  deepest  in  all  the  vast  ocean,  is 
directly  north  of  Puerto  Rico,  where  soundings  have 
gone  down  more  than  27,000  feet. 

When  this  region  was  at  its  highest  elevation  the 
Bahama  plateau  connected  with  the  North  Ameri- 
can continent  and  the  Greater  Antilles,  and  the  ex- 
panse of  land    continued    to    Mexico    and    Central 


1 6  THE  WEST  INDIES 

America,  with  deep  intervening  plains  and  a  general 
south-westward  slope.  When  the  great  subsidence 
came,  it  left  the  long  range  of  the  Greater  Antilles, 
with  their  mountains  and  valleys  and  their  outlying 
protuberances,  above  the  surface  of  the  submerging 
waters ;  and  the  tireless  coral  builders  joined  the 
forces  of  erosion  and  deposit  to  modify  their  outlines. 
The  channels  which  cut  the  Greater  Antilles  apart, 
the  Windward  Passage  between  Cuba  and  Haiti 
and  the  Mona  Passage  between  Santo  Domingo  and 
Puerto  Rico,  are  from  2000  to  3000  feet  deep,  but 
the  chasm  which  separates  the  Virgin  group  from 
the  great  chain  of  the  Caribbees  is  1000  fathoms 
deep.  Even  the  bottom  of  this  is  believed  to  have 
been  high  above  the  surface  in  that  remote  era  be- 
fore the  submergence. 

The  graceful  curve  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  from  the 
broad,  deep  passage  just  mentioned  to  that  which 
divides  it  from  Tobago  and  Trinidad,  that  is  to  say, 
the  range  from  Sombrero  and  the  Dogs  to  Grenada 
and  the  Grenadines,  is  really  a  double  ridge  of 
mountains  on  a  submarine  plateau,  with  peaks  of 
varied  form  and  size  rising  above  the  water.  It  forms 
the  eastern  barrier  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  the  plateau 
sloping  west  into  its  deep  basin  and  extending  east 
a  few  miles  and  falling  abruptly  into  the  depths  of 
the  Atlantic.  The  peaks  rise  from  a  continuous  bench 
some  3000  feet  below  the  surface  and  are  separated 
by  valleys  and  chasms  of  varying  width  and  depth, 
the  deepest  and  widest  cutting  the  range  near  the 
middle,  just  north  of  Martinique.  The  inner  and 
most  continuous  line  is  of  igneous  origin,  showing 


ORIGIN  AND  PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTICS      Ij 

more  and  more  evidences  of  recent  volcanic  action 
as  we  advance  toward  the  equator,  until  craters  are 
found  that  still  rage  and  have  broken  out  in  a 
tremendous  fury  within  the  present  century.  The 
outer  and  less  consecutive  ridge  is  of  calcareous 
formation,  and  much  of  it  has  been  built  up  or 
enlarged  through  ages  by  the  multitudinous  and 
unceasing  polyp,  which  does  not  really  work  but 
evermore  grows  and  propagates,  accumulating  gen- 
erations of  coral  skeletons  into  masses  of  porous 
rock. 

There  is  a  breaking  of  the  ocean  currents  by  this 
rocky  barrier,  which  interferes  with  the  regularity  of 
the  tides  and  produces  effects  peculiar  to  the  region. 
The  great  equatorial  current  is  produced  by  rapid 
evaporation  under  the  tropic  sun,  which  draws  the 
cooler  and  denser  water  from  north  and  south  toward 
the  equator.  The  greater  velocity  of  the  earth's 
surface  in  its  rotation  toward  the  east,  as  the  diam- 
eter perpendicular  to  its  axis  increases,  draws  these 
two  currents  from  north  and  south  into  a  single 
broad  stream  tending  west  upon  the  central  belt  of 
the  globe.  As  this  strikes  the  South  American 
coast  it  is  deflected  to  the  north-west  and  thrown 
upon  the  barrier  of  the  Antilles.  Far  the  greater 
part  of  its  volume  is  again  deflected  north  to  be 
spread  over  the  Atlantic ;  but  vast  quantities  of  the 
water  make  their  way  among  the  huge  pillars  and 
over  the  vast  sills  of  the  Caribbean  barrier  and  rush 
on  to  be  forced  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  the 
swelling  mass  behind.  As  the  movement  is  contin- 
uous, the  invading  force  of  equatorial  water  is  turned 


1 8  THE   WEST  INDIES 

back  by  the  resisting  shores  of  the  gulf  and  by  the 
volume  of  cooler  water  that  drains  down  from  the 
Mississippi  River,  and  is  driven  out  again  through 
the  Florida  Straits  to  form  the  Gulf  Stream. 

This  great  river  of  the  ocean  is  in  a  sense  the 
product  of  the  West  Indian  archipelago.  Where 
the  dark  blue  waters  meet  the  muddy  outflow  of  the 
Mississippi,  which  is  cooler  and  denser,  the  line  of 
demarcation  is  as  clear  and  constant  as  if  the  differ- 
ent-coloured barrier  were  solid ;  and  in  their  flow 
through  the  straits  they  are  concentrated  into  a 
stream  of  which  the  colder  and  heavier  water  of  the 
ocean  forms  the  bed  and  banks.  Here  it  is  thirty- 
seven  miles  wide  and  1200  feet  deep,  and  its  volume 
is  2000  times  as  great  as  that  which  the  Mississippi 
empties  into  the  gulf  as  the  drainage  of  a  continent, 
while  it  moves  with  a  more  rapid  flow  than  the 
greatest  rivers  of  the  earth.  As  it  is  joined  through 
the  passages  north  of  Cuba  by  other  parts  of  the 
equatorial  current,  and  finds  room  to  expand  farther 
on,  its  volume  is  increased  and  its  speed  lessened, 
until  the  lowered  temperature  enables  it  to  mingle 
with  the  waters  of  the  North  Atlantic.  Its  whole- 
some contribution  of  West  Indian  temperature  to 
the  climate  of  Northern  Europe  has  had  incalculable 
effects  upon  civilisation. 

The  currents  of  the  watery  ocean  and  the  disturb- 
ances to  which  they  are  subject  are  on  or  near  the 
surface,  for  their  causes,  in  variations  of  temperature 
and  of  consequent  density  and  pressure,  come  from 
above.  The  currents  of  the  atmospheric  ocean  and 
their  disturbances  are  at  or  near  its  bottom,  where 


ORIGIN  AND  PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTICS      1 9 

it  comes  in  contact  with  the  land  and  water  of  the 
earth's  surface,  and  they  are  liable  to  greater,  more 
sudden,  and  more  violent  changes,  as  the  fluid  air  is 
more  susceptible  to  variations  of  temperature  and  of 
density  than  the  liquid  water  and  moves  with  abso- 
lute freedom  under  the  force  of  pressure  or  ex- 
pansion in  any  direction.  With  this  condition  of 
complete  mobility,  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  of  air  is 
always  under  the  enormous  pressure  of  a  superin- 
cumbent mass  miles  in  depth,  which  is  subject  to  all 
the  "  skyey  influences  "  of  attraction  and  of  heat. 

The  meteorology  of  the  West  Indies  is  particularly 
affected  by  two  results  of  the  uncontrollable  action 
of  atmospheric  currents, — the  steady  and  beneficent 
trade-winds  of  the  north-east,  and  sudden  spasms  of 
storm  which  sometimes  develop  into  the  furious  and 
destructive  hurricane.  The  heat  of  the  equatorial 
zone  causes  the  air  to  expand  and  rise,  and  this  pro- 
duces a  pressure  from  north  and  south  which  draws 
currents  along  the  surface  of  the  globe  from  the 
direction  of  the  poles.  The  rotation  of  the  earth 
toward  the  east,  increasing  in  surface  speed  with 
increase  of  diameter  in  its  latitude,  tends  to  draw 
these  currents  into  one  equatorial  stream,  but  the 
freedom  of  expansion  and  movement  characteristic 
of  air  causes  it  to  join  the  rising  mass  where  the 
currents  meet  in  the  equatorial  belt,  and  to  flow 
back  in  counter  currents  to  the  north  and  south. 

In  the  northern  hemisphere  the  surface  currents, 
drawn  from  the  direction  of  the  Arctic  zone  and  de- 
flected to  the  south-west  by  the  revolution  of  the 
earth,  constitute  the  north-east  trade- winds.    Sweep- 


20  THR   WEST  INDIES 

ing  over  a  wide  expanse  of  ocean  without  interrup- 
tion, they  become  within  a  certain  zone  remarkably 
uniform  and  steady,  though  affected  more  or  less 
by  changes  of  season  and  external  atmospheric  dis- 
turbances. These  steady  winds  were  a  mystery  to 
the  early  navigators,  and  sometimes  filled  them  with 
alarm  lest  they  should  be  carried  to  regions  from 
whose  bourn  there  would  be  no  return.  The  outer 
verge  of  the  Antilles  is  in  the  direct  track  of  the 
trade-winds,  which  have  a  perceptible  effect  in  tem- 
pering and  equalising  their  climatic  conditions.  In- 
cidentally they  give  more  rain  to  the  northern  and 
eastern  coasts  than  to  those  bordering  on  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  and  bring  the  rainy  season,  after  the  first 
tropical  heat  of  the  year,  by  condensing  the  moisture 
that  rises  from  the  ocean. 

An  explanation  of  the  causes  of  storms  and 
cyclones  is  not  relevant  here,  but  the  "  hurricane  " 
is  peculiar  to  the  West  Indies,  and  its  birth  is  an  in- 
teresting phenomenon.  The  very  word  comes  from 
the  Carib  "  hurakan,"  a  contraction  of  "  huiravu- 
can."  The  vast  mass  of  heated  air,  rising  from  the 
burning  deserts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  spreads  in  the 
upper  regions,  and  a  part  of  it  flows  west  over 
the  Atlantic,  slowly  descending.  Something  similar 
goes  on,  but  with  less  intensity,  over  the  tropical 
areas  of  South  America.  The  heated  masses  from 
the  east  encounter  in  the  upper  air  of  the  tropics 
the  returning  currents  of  the  trade-winds  speeding 
to  the  east  of  north,  and  generate  vast  eddies  which 
descend  obliquely  toward  the  earth  in  a  north-west- 
erly direction  until  they  strike  the  lower  currents 


ORIGIN  AND  PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTICS     21 

rushing  to  fill  the  equatorial  vacuum.  Sometimes 
there  is  a  concurrence  of  differences  in  temperature 
and  pressure  and  in  electrical  conditions,  which 
begets  a  terrific  commotion  along  the  earth. 

Out  of  the  conditions  thus  briefly  indicated  springs 
from  time  to  time  the  West  Indian  variety  of  cyclone 
which  is  called  a  hurricane.  Its  path  is  narrow,  but 
it  is  apt  to  take  its  course  to  the  west  of  north  across 
the  lower  part  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  and  over  one 
or  more  of  the  larger  islands,  carrying  destruction 
upon  its  way  on  land  and  sea.  Its  huge  spirals 
always  circle  from  left  to  right,  and  the  velocity  of 
the  wind  is  greatest  on  its  western  verge,  where  its 
movement  is  with  the  general  direction  of  the  storm. 
Varied  conditions  of  moisture  and  electricity  cause 
darkness  and  lurid  lights  and  colours,  which  add 
their  appalling  effect  to  the  fury  of  the  air ;  lightened 
pressure  within  the  vast  spirals  of  the  wind  lifts  the 
surface  of  the  sea  and  sometimes  causes  great  tidal 
waves,  and  occasionally  masses  of  water  are  whirled 
up  from  the  ocean  to  be  precipitated  in  drenching 
torrents  upon  some  hapless  shore. 

Partly  as  the  result  of  the  currents  of  the  ocean 
and  the  air,  the  temperature  of  the  islands,  extend- 
ing over  nearly  twenty  degrees  of  latitude,  does  not 
differ  much  between  Great  Bahama  and  Trinidad, 
and  variations  of  climate  are  not  great  except  as 
affected  by  altitude  and  here  and  there  by  local  con- 
ditions. The  rainy  and  less  healthful  season  comes 
on  in  late  June,  two  months  later,  it  is  said,  than  in 
the  early  times,  and  lasts  till  the  end  of  September, 
with  great  variation  in  the  rainfall.     Then  comes 


22  THE  WEST  INDIES 

the  cooler  and  drier  season,  followed  by  the  hotter 
and  drier  in  the  spring,  but  the  temperature  is  rarely 
above  90°  Fahrenheit,  and  98°  is  an  unusual  extreme. 

Speaking  of  the  islands  as  a  whole,  we  may  say 
that  there  is  in  their  vegetation  and  their  animal 
life  a  great  deal  of  variety  within  a  general  tropical 
uniformity.  There  are  strange  resemblances  in  flora 
and  fauna  mingled  with  curious  contrasts.  In  local- 
ities far  apart,  in  formations  of  the  remote  miocene 
period,  remains  have  been  found  of  great  quad- 
rupeds— mastodons,  elephants,  rhinoceroses,  and 
hippopotamuses — akin  to  those  whose  fossils  are 
dug  from  similar  formations  in  the  United  States. 
In  historical  times  there  have  been  no  indigenous 
mammals  larger  than  a  raccoon.  Most  of  those  sur- 
viving are  the  smaller  rodents.  Existing  species  of 
animals  and  even  of  birds  indicate  that  the  period 
of  migration  from  the  continents  and  between  the 
islands  by  land  is  remote,  the  later  species  being 
peculiar  to  certain  islands.  Birds  of  brilliant  plum- 
age, like  those  of  South  America,  are  not  common, 
but  there  are  fifteen  species  of  humming-birds,  five 
of  which  are  found  nowhere  else.  The  reptiles  have 
affinities  with  those  of  Mexico  and  Central  America, 
but  there  is  an  ant-eater  in  Cuba  whose  congener  is 
found  in  Madagascar.  The  deep-sea  fauna  on  the 
Caribbean  side  are  akin  to  those  of  the  Pacific  Ocean 
rather  than  the  Atlantic, 

Everywhere  in  the  tepid  waters  is  an  abundance 
of  molluscs  and  of  fish,  and  sharks  lurk  about  the 
reefs.  The  coral-building  polyp  is  found  on  all  the 
banks  and  along  most  of  the  shores,  raising  its  fan- 


ORIGIN  AND  PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTICS     23 

tastic  columns,  making  fringes  to  the  islands,  and 
obstructing  channels  with  its  persistent  structures. 
Tangled  with  the  foundations  of  these  are  varied 
algae  and  other  marine  flora,  and  drifting  on  the 
surface,  especially  to  the  eastward,  are  acres  of 
sargasso,  like  verdant  prairies  of  the  sea. 


CHAPTER  III 


BEFORE   THE        DISCOVERY 


WHEN  Columbus  was  preparing  for  his  adven- 
turous voyages,  they  were  not  intended  so 
much  for  the  discovery  of  new  lands  as  for  the  open- 
ing of  a  new  way  to  the  old  lands  of  the  East.  He 
was  to  seize  on  the  way  anything  that  might  belong 
to  the  "  heathen,"  as  a  preliminary  to  their  conver- 
sion, simply  because  the  heathen  were  assumed  to 
have  no  rights  of  possession,  and  not  because  the 
previous  existence  of  the  property  was  unknown. 
The  so-called  "  right  of  discovery,"  as  superior  to 
the  right  of  possession,  was  a  peculiar  conception  of 
fifteenth-century  Christianity.  It  was  really  the 
right  to  take  by  force  whatever  did  not  already  be- 
long to  Christian  nations. 

At  that  time  the  great  American  archipelago  was 
occupied  by  the  people  to  whom  it  naturally  be- 
longed, and  they  were  probably  about  as  numerous 
as  the  present  peculiarly  mixed  assortment  of  in- 
habitants. For  the  most  part  they  were  not  the 
aborigines  of  the   land,    but   immigrants   from   the 

24 


BEFORE  THE   ''DISCOVERY"  25 

coast  of  South  America.  There  were  some  remnants 
of  savage  tribes,  hke  the  Guanahatabibes  of  Western 
Cuba,  whose  ancestors  are  supposed  to  have  come 
from  the  North  American  continent ;  and  traces 
have  been  found  in  caves  or  in  the  earth  of  primeval 
inhabitants  who  may  have  been  the  real  autoch- 
thones. In  the  mountains  of  Haiti  there  are  linger- 
ing vestiges  of  myths  and  legends  and  of  rites  and 
superstitions  which  are  believed  by  some  to  have 
come  down  from  prehistoric  ages  and  become 
mingled  with  others  of  African  origin. 

But  before  the  arrival  of  the  great  European  navi- 
gator, the  people  consisted  almost  wholly  of  two 
races,  or  branches  of  the  same  race,  which  had  made 
their  way  northward  from  the  valleys  of  the  Esse- 
quibo  and  the  Orinoco — the  Arawaks  and  the 
Caribs.  They  seem  to  have  been  hereditary  ene- 
mies, and  one  was  apparently  driven  before  the 
other.  The  Arawaks  were  a  mild  and  peaceable 
race,  and  had  occupied  the  Bahamas  and  Greater 
Antilles  long  enough  to  develop  tribal  differences 
and  variations  of  language,  while  the  Caribs  were 
a  fierce  and  aggressive  people  Avhich  held  full 
possession  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  including  the 
Virgin  group  to  the  east  of  Puerto  Rico.  They  are 
supposed  to  have  driven  the  Arawaks  from  these 
islands,  and  they  sometimes  made  hostile  incursions 
upon  the  shores  of  the  great  islands  to  the  west  and 
w^ere  even  dreaded  among  the  Bahamas.  In  these 
marauding  expeditions  they  not  only  plundered  the 
villages  of  the  peaceful  Arawaks,  but  captured  their 
young  men  for  slaves,  or,  as  some  maintain,  for  sup- 


26  THE   WEST  INDIES 

plies  of  fresh  meat,  and  their  women  for  wives  and 
bondservants. 

The  Bahamas  were  somewhat  sparsely  peopled,  as 
they  are  at  present,  and  the  inhabitants  called  them- 
selves Yucayos,  which  became  corrupted  to  Lucayos 
when  the  Spanish  adopted  for  these  scattered  islands 
the  designation  Los  Cayos,  or"  The  Keys."  They 
were  a  simple  people,  and  in  the  genial  climate, 
where  they  passed  much  of  their  time  in  the  tepid 
waters,  they  were  wont  to  be  "  naked  and  not 
ashamed."  They  were  short  of  stature,  sturdy  of 
form,  and  of  a  rich  reddish-brown,  or  copper,  colour, 
and  had  a  practice  of  flattening  the  head  in  infancy, 
which  gave  it  a  regular  backward  slope  from  the 
brows.  This  they  seem  to  have  regarded  as  an  im- 
provement upon  nature,  but  they  were  not  otherwise 
addicted  to  personal  adornment.  There  was  not 
much  tillable  soil  over  the  calcareous  skeleton  of 
their  islands,  and  they  lived  mainly  on  fish,  mol- 
luscs, eggs  of  sea-birds  and  turtles,  the  flesh  of  the 
turtle  and  the  iguana,  bread  made  from  the  wild 
cassava  plant,  and  pineapples  and  such  other  fruit 
as  was  to  be  had  without  cultivation.  They  were 
wonderful  swimmers  and  divers,  and  were  accus- 
tomed to  go  down  into  the  clear  water  among  the 
coral  reefs  for  part  of  their  food  supplies.  Their 
shelter,  when  they  needed  any,  was  a  hut  of  reeds 
and  palm  leaves,  and  their  dress  was  little  else  than 
their  native  innocence.  They  used  bows  and  arrows 
and  a  slender  lance  tipped  with  fish  bone,  and  pad- 
dled about  in  broad-bottomed  canoes,  some  of  which 
would  carry  forty  persons  or  more.     They  wrought 


BEFORE  THE   ''DISCOVERY"  2/ 

cotton  and  other  fibres  into  rude  nets  and  the  ham- 
acas  (hammocks)  which  were  their  beds.  Skulls  of 
these  people  and  some  rude  stone  implements  have 
been  found  in  caves  on  Long  Island  and  the  Caicos 
and  Turks.  There  is  a  hatchet  made  of  a  smooth 
green  stone,  of  a  kind  not  found  on  the  islands, 
presumably  indicating  an  occasional  interchange  of 
goods  with  the  other  islands  or  the  mainland.  A 
curious  seat  carved  from  lignum-vitae  is  presumed  to 
have  been  the  humble  throne  of  a  chief.  The  Yu- 
cayos  were  leading  a  tranquil  and  harmless  life  when 
rudely  disturbed  by  the  discoverers. 

The  people  of  Cuba  were  of  the  same  race,  for 
they  spoke  substantially  the  same  language  and  had 
similar  physical  characteristics,  but  they  had  de- 
veloped peculiarities  of  their  own.  There  may  have 
been  some  mingling  of  blood  with  the  Mayas  across 
the  channel  in  Yucatan,  for  there  is  a  similarity  in  the 
relics  found  on  the  two  shores,  though  those  of  the 
mainland  indicate  greater  advancement.  Hatch- 
ets of  polished  serpentine  or  diorite  found  near 
Bayamo,  other  relics  discovered  in  caves  near  Cape 
Maisi,  and  those  deposits  of  human  remains  called 
caneys,  are  believed  to  indicate  considerable  an- 
tiquity. The  principal  tribe  of  Cuba  at  the  time  of 
the  "discovery"  was  the  Ciboneys,  or  Cebuneys, 
who  had  the  wide  skulls,  flattened  foreheads,  straight 
black  hair,  and  coppery  complexion  of  the  Yucayos. 
They  had  the  same  gentle  and  peaceable  character- 
istics; but,  their  land  having  a  variety  of  fertile  soil, 
they  were  largely  occupied  in  agricultural  pursuits. 
They  raised  large  fields  of  maize  and  manioc;  they 


28  THE   WEST  INDIES 

gathered  fruits  and  knew  the  charm  of  smoking  to- 
bacco; they  spun  and  wove  the  fibre  of  cotton  into 
simple  fabrics,  made  crude  pottery,  and  carved  im- 
plements and  utensils  of  wood  and  stone.  Relics 
of  rude  images  and  carvings  of  pictorial  inscriptions 
upon  rocks  have  been  found,  which  show  the  awak- 
ening of  the  artistic  and  literary  instincts.  Their 
dwellings  were  generally  extensive  huts  formed  of 
branches,  reeds,  and  large  leaves  of  palm  and  plan- 
tain, and  contained  many  families,  sometimes  a  com- 
munity of  a  hundred  persons  and  more.  They,  too, 
had  broad-beamed  craft  with  which  they  navigated 
the  inlets  and  bays  of  their  land  and  sometimes 
ventured  forth  to  sea.  Cuba  was  not  so  devoid  of 
quadrupeds  as  the  Bahamas,  having  the  peccary,  a 
"  dumb  dog," — probably  the  raccoon, — "  rats  and 
mice,  and  such  small  deer,"  but  the  people  did  not 
eat  flesh.  Arawak  is  said  to  mean  meal-eater,  and 
the  diet  of  the  race  may  account  for  its  gentle  and 
peaceable  disposition  and  amiable  qualities,  which 
excited  the  admiration  of  the  discoverers,  but  did 
not  protect  the  harmless  people  from  their  cruelty. 
Jamaica — Xaymaca,  "  the  land  of  fountains  " — 
was  also  populous.  Its  pimento  groves  swarmed 
with  a  tribe  described  as  somewhat  smaller  and 
darker  than  those  of  Cuba,  but  their  characteristics 
and  habits  were  much  the  same.  They  lived  chiefly 
upon  the  products  of  the  soil,  which  they  cultivated 
as  much  as  they  found  necessary;  they  smoked  to- 
bacco, and  were  abstemious  in  eating  and  drinking, 
and  were  neither  warlike  nor  addicted  to  the  slaugh- 
ter of  living  things.     More  relics  of  native  handi- 


BEFORE  THE   ''DISCOVERY"  29 

work  have  been  found  here,  and  early  descriptions 
indicate  a  greater  fondness  for  ornamentation.  The 
great  cacique  is  said  to  have  had  a  showy  canoe 
that  would  carry  a  hundred  men,  to  have  worn  a 
band  of  coloured  stones  around  his  head  and  a 
mantle  of  variegated  feathers,  and  otherwise  to  have 
been  decorated  with  gold  and  beads  and  stones  more 
or  less  precious. 

Old  records  declare  that  Haiti  had  more  than  i,- 
000,000  inhabitants  when  it  was  discovered,  and  some 
chroniclers  put  the  number  much  higher,  but  nobody 
knows.  It  simply  gave  the  impression  of  swarming 
with  people,  who  were  first  described  as  small  of 
stature  and  of  dark  complexion,  with  all  the  amiable 
characteristics  of  their  fellow  Arawaks.  The  island 
was  divided  into  five  kingdoms,  each  with  its  own 
cacique, — the  Arawak  title  for  ruler, — but,  in  the 
mountains  of  the  interior,  the  realm  of  Cibao,  which 
was  reported  to  be  a  realm  of  gold,  had  for  its  po- 
tentate a  Carib  invader  with  warriors  at  his  com- 
mand. All  along  the  coasts,  however,  the  people 
raised  their  fields  of  maize  and  manioc,  and  of 
tobacco  and  cotton;  they  constructed  their  canoes 
of  Cottonwood  and  cedar,  made  simple  fabrics  of 
cotton  and  feathers,  wrought  implements  of  wood 
and  stone,  and  essayed  their  rude  works  of  art  in 
pottery  and  graven  images.  In  some  of  the  lime- 
stone caves  with  which  the  island  abounds  rude 
carvings  have  been  found  of  crocodiles,  turtles,  frogs, 
scorpions,  and  other  animal  forms,  incrusted  with 
the  calcareous  deposits  of  ages.  The  people  seem 
to  have  led  a  peaceful  life,  save  when  disturbed  by 


30  THE   WEST  INDIES 

the  occasional  forays  by  water  of  the  fierce  Caribs  of 
the  south,  or  by  the  wild  hurricane. 

The  old  chroniclers  declare  that  Puerto  Rico  when 
discovered  "  had  1,000,000  people  under  one  ca- 
cique. They  were  of  the  same  race  as  those  of  Haiti, 
and  their  ways  and  habits  were  not  materially  differ- 
ent. It  is  apparently  here,  however,  that  the  Ara- 
waks  had  been  longest  established  and  had  reached 
the  highest  development.  The  relics  of  "  celts," 
stone  implements  and  weapons,  ornaments,  masks, 
and  collars,  though  the  discovery  of  such  is  scanty 
yet,  show  a  somewhat  greater  variety,  a  higher 
finish,  and  more  perceptible  significance.  One  pecul- 
iar to  the  island  is  the  polished  collar  of  stone, 
shaped  like  a  horse-collar  and  nearly  as  large,  some- 
times weighing  sixty-five  pounds  or  more.  It  is 
believed  to  have  been  somehow  connected  with  the 
simple  religious  faith  of  the  people.  One  tradition 
is  that  it  was  carefully  wrought  in  the  owner's  life- 
time to  be  placed  over  his  head  in  his  final  resting- 
place,  to  prevent  the  evil  one  from  snatching  him 
away. 

There  are  many  evidences  in  relics  and  in  the  early 
records  that  the  religious  perceptions  of  the  Arawaks 
were  much  like  those  of  other  primitive  people. 
They  deified  the  forces  of  nature  and  had  a  dread 
of  unseen  beings.  Some  of  their  rude  images  repre- 
sented household  or  tribal  gods, — their  lares  and 
penates  or  teraphim, — and  they  had  a  vague  con- 
ception of  one  mighty  Deity  whose  voice  was  in  the 
thunder  and  whose  presence  gave  power  to  the 
storm,  and  of  a  continuation  of  life  beyond  the  grave. 


BEFORE  THE   ''DISCOVERY"  3 1 

This  crude  form  of  faith,  radical  in  the  human  race, 
characterised  most  of  the  scattered  tribes  of  the 
Western  world  before  the  light  of  the  East  reached 
its  shores. 

The  island  of  Borinquen,  as  the  native  people 
called  what  is  now  Puerto  Rico,  had  stayed  the  tide 
of  Carib  invasion  and  conquest,  though  it  had  not 
prevented  repeated  attacks  which  reached  to  Haiti 
and  even  spread  terror  among  the  Bahamas.  But  the 
Caribs  had  taken  full  possession  of  the  long  chain  of 
the  Lesser  Antilles  and  established  themselves 
among  the  Virgins.  They  were  a  different  breed 
from  the  gentle  and  unresisting  Arawaks — fierce, 
aggressive,  unyielding,  pitiless  to  their  enemies  and 
their  victims,  but  hospitable  and  generous  to  kins- 
men and  friends.  They  were  taller  and  of  a  lighter 
complexion, — sometimes  described  as  olive,  or  as 
yellow,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  coppery  red, — had 
finer  hair,  of  a  gleaming  black,  and  were  accustomed 
to  paint  their  bodies  and  make  their  faces  hideous 
with  rings  around  the  eyes  and  streaks  upon  the 
cheeks.  Their  apparel  consisted  chiefly  of  necklaces 
of  bone  and  teeth,  and  girdles  of  shells  and  coloured 
stones,  variegated  with  feathers. 

When  the  Spaniards  first  encountered  the  Carib 
warriors,  they  were  horrified  by  evidences  of  canni- 
balism. They  found  bones  about  the  huts  and 
camps,  and  skulls  apparently  used  for  drinking 
vessels  or  domestic  utensils,  and  they  even  reported 
seeing  human  limbs  hanging  up  as  butchers'  sup- 
plies. Some  have  doubted  whether  these  gruesome 
scenes  meant  more  than  the  sacrifice  of  the  captives 


32  THE   WEST  INDIES 

of  war  as  part  of  some  horrible  religious  ceremony, 
or  of  hideous  feasts  commemorating  triumphs  over 
enemies.  But  this  would  hardly  better  the  case  for 
the  Caribs,  and  apparently  they  were  occasionally, 
if  not  regularly,  eaters  of  human  flesh.  It  may  be 
that  their  progenitors  in  the  mountains  and  valleys 
of  South  America  had  been  nourished  for  genera- 
tions upon  animal  food,  and  that  when  they  came 
into  possession  of  the  islands  where  beasts  whose 
life  was  in  the  blood  were  scarcely  known,  the  crav- 
ing became  irresistible,  like  that  of  starving  men 
at  sea  or  in  the  Arctic  ice.  Being  naturally  meat- 
eaters,  they  may  have  begun  to  devour  the  meal- 
eating  Arawaks  who  fell  victims  to  their  warlike 
prowess,  and  doubtless  the  appetite  grew  by  what  it 
fed  on.  The  fierce  and  enterprising  spirit  of  the 
Carib  may  have  been  due  to  the  fact  that  he  was  an 
eater  of  flesh,  and  it  may  have  demanded  the  diet  of 
flesh  to  maintain  itself;  and  human  flesh  affording 
the  only  available  supply,  he  was  impelled  to  de- 
vour his  enemies  and  to  restrain  himself  in  the  com- 
pany of  strangers.  There  is  a  remnant  of  the  old 
Carib  stock  in  the  island  of  Dominica  and  another 
in  St.  Vincent,  but  in  them  there  is  no  vestige  of 
the  old  warlike  spirit.  The  people  till  the  soil  and 
live  upon  the  fruits  of  the  ground. 

Spanish  writers  used  to  say  that  Carib  meant  man- 
eater,  and  was  synonymous  with  cannibal;  but  it 
meant  nothing  of  the  kind,  and  it  was  they  who 
derived  "  cannibal  "  from  it  by  an  ingenious  varia- 
tion from  caribal  or  calibal,  injecting  into  it  a  sug- 
gestion of  canine  origin.     The  name  had  its  source 


BEFORE  THE   ''DISCOVERY"  33 

in  South  America,  in  the  region  of  the  CaHbe  Moun- 
tains, and  seems  to  have  merely  meant  "  people," 
being  adopted  by  a  race  assuming  to  be  the  people 
par  excellence,  as  a  certain  ancient  race  took  the  name 
of  "  Shem,"  signifying  "  name,"  or  pre-eminence. 
The  Caribs  compressed  the  skulls  of  infants,  but 
not  after  the  manner  of  the  Arawaks.  They  made 
the  forehead  high  and  square,  instead  of  flat  and 
sloping  backward.  Their  language  was  different 
from  that  of  the  weaker  race,  but  a  modification  of 
the  latter  prevailed  among  their  women,  because 
these  women  were  mostly  captives  from  the  Arawaks 
or  descendants  of  such.  The  boys  as  they  grew  up 
followed  the  speech  of  their  fathers  and  the  girls  that 
of  the  mothers,  thus  keeping  up  the  distinction, 
which  was  less  difificult  with  the  simple  tongue  of  a 
savage  tribe  than  it  would  be  with  the  complex 
language  of  a  civilised  people.  The  chiefs  and  war- 
riors are  even  said  to  have  had  a  special  "  lingo,"  in 
which  they  discussed  affairs  of  state  without  the 
need  of  secret  sessions.  The  Caribs  left  relics  of 
their  better  days,  which,  with  the  not  very  accurate 
records  of  old  Spanish  chroniclers,  show  that  they 
made  ornaments  of  metal  as  well  as  of  stone  and 
shell ;  that  they  fabricated  baskets  and  wove  cotton 
cloth  as  well  as  constructed  canoes,  and  shaped 
weapons  and  implements  of  peace  from  wood  and 
bone  and  stone.  There  are  rock  inscriptions  and 
carvings  on  some  of  the  islands  which  may  or  may 
not  antedate  the  "  discovery."  They  kindled  fires 
by  rubbing  two  sticks  together,  and  they  had  rude 
altars  upon  which  offerings  were  made  to  the  mys- 


34  THE  WEST  INDIES 

terious  power  to  which  they  did  reverence.  Their 
religious-  conceptions,  like  their  mental  activity, 
seem  to  have  been  somewhat  higher  than  those  of 
the  more  virtuous  Arawaks,  and  they  believed  in 
one  God,  and  a  future  life  for  the  brave  and  worthy. 
They  had  a  kind  of  family  life  and  lived  in  small 
huts,  made  of  poles  stuck  in  the  ground,  bound  to- 
gether at  the  top,  and  covered  with  branches,  bark, 
and  leaves.  How  many  of  these  people  there  were 
on  all  the  islands  no  one  ever  knew,  and  the  first  con- 
jectures were  very  wild.  They  were  not  wholly  ad- 
dicted to  war  and  the  securing  of  animal  food;  but 
they,  too,  raised  crops  after  a  fashion,  and  did  not 
wholly  disdain  the  products  of  the  soil.  Neither  the 
mild  Arawak  nor  the  fierce  Carib  seems  to  have  been 
given  to  sensuality,  and  in  that  respect  they  com- 
pared favourably  with  the  Spanish  "  Christians," 
who  proceeded  to  exterminate  the  gentler  race  and 
to  enslave,  so  far  as  they  could,  the  more  vigorous. 
Incidentally  the  lack  of  animals  and  of  quadrupeds 
in  the  archipelago  has  been  noted,  and  as  a  result 
there  was  practically  no  such  thing  as  beasts  of 
burden  or  domestic  animals,  little  use  of  skins,  and  no 
occupation  in  hunting;  and  the  simple  industries  of 
the  people  were  carried  on  by  hand  with  the  rudest 
devices.  But  the  lavish  gifts  of  nature,  gathered 
with  little  effort,  were  sufficient  for  the  wants  of  man  ; 
the  forests  flourished  unchecked  from  generation  to 
generation ;  vegetation  waxed  and  waned  with  the 
changing  seasons,  and  the  teeming  life  of  bird  and 
reptile  and  insect  went  on  beneath  the  tropic  sun 
and  throusrh  the  whirlwind  and  the  storm. 


CHAPTER  IV 


THE   PROCESS   OF   DISCOVERY 


IT  is  not  our  business  to  follow  the  trials  and 
triumphs  of  Don  Cristobal  Colon,  known  to 
readers  of  English  as  Christopher  Columbus,  and 
christened  in  his  native  Italy  as  Cristoforo  Colombo, 
for  they  have  been  made  familiar  by  many  writers; 
but  we  must  trace  briefly  the  process  of  his  dis- 
covery of  the  West  Indies.  It  was  Friday,  August 
3,  1492,  when  he  left  the  small  port  of  Palos  with 
his  three  little  vessels,  and  on  September  6th,  after 
a  call  at  the  Canary  Islands,  he  left  all  known  land 
behind  him,  and  ventured  upon  the  unexplored 
waters  to  the  west.  The  Santa  Maria  was  a  decked 
vessel,  ninety  feet  long,  with  four  masts,  two  of 
which  were  square  -  rigged  and  the  other  two 
equipped  with  lateen  sails.  A  poop  above  the  deck 
astern  covered  an  armament  of  guns  capable  of 
hurling  the  grape  and  shrapnel  of  that  day,  and 
officers  and  crew  numbered  sixty-six  men.  The 
Pinta  and  Nina  were  little  caravels,  or  undecked 
vessels,  turned  up  fore  and  aft  like  a  floating  cradle. 

35 


36  THE   WEST  INDIES 

The  former,  commanded  by  Martin  Alonso  Pinzon, 
had  a  crew  of  thirty  men,  and  the  latter,  under  his 
brother,  Vicente  Yafiez  Pinzon,  had  one  of  twenty- 
four  men.  Both  were  rigged  with  lateen  sails  only. 
There  were  one  hundred  and  twenty  men  in  the 
whole  expedition. 

The  distance  traversed  in  the  ten  weeks'  voyage 
was  scarcely  one  fourth  of  the  way  to  the  far-off 
Indies  which  Columbus  expected  to  reach  by  this 
western  route.  Across  his  track  lay  the  two  great 
continents,  then  unknown  to  Europe,  and  the  archi- 
pelago stretching  between  them  which  was  to  be 
the  limit  of  his  explorations,  save  for  some  brief  and 
dubious  lingerings  upon  the  southern  and  western 
shores  of  the  Caribbean  Sea.  This  was  not  exactly  a 
"new  world."  For  ages  the  St.  Lawrence,  the 
Mississippi,  and  the  Amazon  had  drained  their  great 
valleys  ;  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Cordilleras, 
and  the  Andes  had  stretched  their  long  barrier  from 
north  to  south  between  the  oceans;  the  dusky  tribes 
had  roamed  the  forests  and  built  up  the  rude  splen- 
dours of  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  the  tropical  islands 
had  inclosed  the  great  basins  of  the  double  sea. 
But  of  this  the  adventurous  navigator  knew  nothing 
v/hen  he  set  forth  upon  the  limitless  "  waste  of 
waters. 

He  was  disturbed  by  variations  of  the  magnetic 
needle  never  before  observed  ;  he  was  astonished  by 
the  vast  and  floating  fields  of  marine  verdure  in  the 

Sargasso  Sea";  he  was  mystified  by  the  steady 
pull  of  the  trade-winds;  and  finally  he  was  delighted 
by  the  sight  of  land,  which  he  had  no  doubt  was  a 


THE  PROCESS   OF  DISCOVERY  37 

newly  discovered  outpost  of  the  Indies.  He  was 
steering  straight  for  the  northern  entrance  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  through  the  Bahamas  when  he  came 
upon  the  island  called  Guanahani  by  the  natives, 
and  by  him  named  with  pious  gratitude  San  Salva- 
dor, or  Holy  Saviour.  We  may  as  well  ignore  the 
long-time  controversy,  and  conclude  at  once  that 
this  was  what  is  now  called  Watling  Island.  It  may 
seem  strange  that  there  should  have  been  a  contro- 
versy, but  the  Spanish  made  no  settlement  in  the 
Bahamas,  and  within  twenty  years  they  had  carried 
the  harmless  natives  into  slavery  in  the  Antilles; 
and  the  islands  were  left  desolate  and  deserted  for  a 
century  after.  Then  San  Salvador  and  the  others 
named  by  Columbus  were  lost  sight  of,  and  after 
the  English  had  given  them  new  names  it  be- 
came difficult  to  identify  them  from  the  old  de- 
scriptions. 

But  the  place  where  Columbus  fell  on  his  knees 
and  kissed  the  earth,  giving  thanks  to  God  and 
taking  possession  in  the  name  of  their  Catholic 
Majesties,  was  undoubtedly  the  north-east  coast  of 
Watling  Island.  He  said  that  there  were  "  no 
better  people  on  earth  "  than  those  he  found  there. 
He  did  not  linger  long,  but  skirted  down  the  island's 
western  coast,  and  next  reached  what  is  now  Rum 
Cay,  to  which  he  gave  the  more  attractive  name  of 
Santa  Maria  de  la  Concepcion.  After  that  he 
touched  Long  Island,  which  he  called  Fernandina 
in  honour  of  the  King,  and  Crooked  (including  the 
spur  now  called  Fortune),  which  he  named  Isabella, 
for  the  Queen.      He  left  the  Bahama  group,  after  a 


38  THE  WEST  INDIES 

stay  of  two  weeks  in  all,  at  the  flat  and  sandy  islets 
now  called  "  Ragged,"  to  which  he  gave  the  more 
graceful,  if  not  more  appropriate,  name  of  Las  Islas 
de  Arenas  (The  Islands  of  Sand).  Having  seven 
Lucayan  natives  with  him,  he  sailed  south  for  two 
days,  and  on  October  28th  reached  the  coast  of 
Cuba  at  what  is  now  the  port  of  Gibara,  He  called 
the  country  Juana,  in  honour  of  Juan,  son  of  Fer- 
dinand and  Isabella.  He  thought  surely  he  had 
come  to  the  realm  of  the  Grand  Khan,  and  he  under- 
took to  send  an  embassy  to  that  potentate,  but 
neither  he  nor  the  splendid  capital  described  by 
Marco  Polo  was  to  be  found.  Neither  was  there 
evidence  of  great  riches  in  these  parts,  and  the  mis- 
sion of  converting  the  heathen  must  await  the  dis- 
covery of  earthly  treasures. 

The  disappointed  navigator  coasted  eastward  until 
he  reached  the  cape  which  he  called  Maisi,  and  which 
still  bears  the  name.  The  natives,  with  disinterested 
zeal,  assured  him  that  the  land  of  gold  was  ' '  Bohio, ' ' 
over  the  water  to  the  east.  Martin  Pinzon  seems  to 
have  wearied  of  the  search,  or  determined  to  make 
it  on  his  own  account,  for  he  had  deserted  his  com- 
mander and  put  off  to  the  eastward  alone  with  the 
Pinta.  So,  when  Columbus  arrived  off  the  western 
end  of  Haiti,  on  the  6th  of  December,  he  had  only 
the  Santa  Maria  and  the  little  Nina  left,  with  con- 
siderably less  than  a  hundred  men.  The  point  of  land 
before  him  he  called  Cape  San  Nicolas,  from  the 
saint  on  whose  day  he  first  beheld  it.  It  is  where 
the  termination  of  a  mountain  ridge  stands  like  a 
huge  breakwater,  and  is  still  called  Mole  St.  Nicho- 


THE   PROCESS   OF  DISCOVERY  39 

las.  This  western  end  of  the  island  was  called  by 
the  natives  Bohio,  the  "  great  country,"  and  the 
other  end  was  Quisqueya,  "  mother  of  the  earth," 
and  the  whole  island  was  Haiti,  the  "  land  of  moun- 
tains," Columbus  called  it  Espanola,  or  Little  Spain, 
and  the  Latinised  form,  Hispaniola,  came  into  com- 
mon use.  Access  to  the  land  of  gold  was  still  far  to 
the  east,  and  the  two  lone  vessels,  the  Niila  in  the 
van,  made  their  way  along  the  northern  coast,  the  sce- 
nery of  which  charmed  the  adventurous  Admiral,  as 
his  journal  testifies.  They  reached  the  spacious  bay 
of  Acul,  and  heard  of  the  great  king,  Guacanagari, 
and  also  of  the  interior  region  of  Cibao,  which  was 
the  very  heart  of  the  land  of  gold.  Cibao  must,  in- 
deed, be  that  Cipango  which  was  the  chief  object  of 
their  quest. 

Before  they  reached  the  realm  of  the  coast  mon- 
arch with  the  long  name,  the  Santa  Maria  was  run 
aground  by  a  sleepy  boy  in  whose  charge  the  rudder 
was  left,  and  became  a  wreck.  The  Indian  village 
of  Guarico  was  still  some  miles  away,  but  the  good 
cacique  lent  timely  aid,  and  the  wreckage  of  the 
ship  and  the  whole  company  were  got  to  that  spot 
on  Christmas  morning.  In  honour  of  that  event, 
Columbus  called  the  fort  which  he  built  of  the  tim- 
bers of  the  Santa  Maria  and  armed  with  her  guns. 
La  Natividad,  or  Navidad,  He  was  treated  with 
generous  hospitality  by  Guacanagari,  who  made  an 
imprudent  display  of  gold  ornaments;  and  in  grate- 
ful recognition  the  explorer  took  possession  of  the 
land  in  the  name  of  their  Majesties  of  Castile  and 
Leon,    and    planned    an   expedition   of   plunder  to 


40  THE   WEST  INDIES 

Cibao.  The  reef  on  which  the  Santa  Maria  was 
wrecked  is  off  Cape  Haitien,  and  the  site  of  the  vil- 
lage of  Guarico,  where  the  fortress  of  La  Navidad 
was  built,  is  now  occupied  by  a  little  fishing  hamlet 
called  "  Petit  Anse. " 

Leaving  forty-three  men  here  as  a  garrison, 
Columbus  set  out  for  Spain  to  report  his  discovery 
and  bring  out  a  larger  expedition.  On  his  way 
along  the  coast  he  anchored  near  a  picturesque 
mountain  which  he  called  Monte  Cristi,  where  he 
encountered  the  deserter,  Martin  Pinzon,  and  the 
Pinta.  He  entered  the  mouth  of  a  river  farther  on, 
and  named  it  Rio  del  Oro,  River  of  Gold,  because  he 
found  glittering  particles  of  the  precious  dust  in  its 
sands,  and  assumed  that  it  came  down  from  the 
realm  of  fabulous  wealth.  He  told  of  seeing  some 
unattractive  mermaids  here,  which  were  probably 
specimens  of  the  manatee. 

At  the  eastern  end  of  the  island  he  found  a  deep 
bay,  where  he  landed.  He  was  at  first  inhospitably 
greeted  by  the  natives  with  a  thick  flight  of  arrows, 
which  led  him  to  call  the  bay  the  Golfo  de  las 
Flechas,  or  Gulf  of  Arrows,  but  he  soon  made 
friends  with  the  cacique  of  the  Samana  tribe,  whose 
name  the  bay  still  retains,  and  spent  several  days 
on  shore.  He  heard  of  Madanino,  the  island  of  the 
Amazons,  and  was  eager  to  find  it.  Taking  several 
of  the  natives  to  show  him  the  way,  he  sailed  on, 
but  failing  to  discover  the  fascinating  Amazons  he 
proceeded  to  Spain.  He  arrived  at  Palos,  March  15, 
1493, having  got  separated  from  Pinzon  and  the  Pinta 
in  a  storm.     As  the  result  of  his  reports,  he  was 


THE   PROCESS   OF  DISCOVERY  4 1 

treated  with  great  distinction,  and  a  new  expedition 
was  fitted  out  with  much  Hberahty.  There  were 
three  carracks,  fourteen  caravels,  and  1500  men. 
Horses  and  cattle  and  other  equipment  for  a  colony- 
were  taken  along,  and  withal  twelve  missionaries  to 
attend  to  the  saving  of  the  souls  of  the  heathen 
whose  virtues  Columbus  so  highly  extolled. 

On  this  second  voyage  a  more  southerly  course 
was  taken,  and  the  longed-for  land  first  sighted 
was  called  Deseada,  "  the  Desired,"  now  Desirade. 
Another  small  island  was  named  Marigalante,  for  the 
vessel  which  the  Admiral  commanded,  and  a  cluster 
encountered  on  "  All  Saints'  Day  "  was  called  Los 
Santos,  "  The  Saints,"  now  the  French  islands  "  Les 
Saintes. "  A  larger  island  to  the  south  attracted 
the  navigator,  and  he  called  it  Dominica,  because 
first  seen  on  Sunday  (November  3,  1493),  but  find- 
ing its  coast  difficult  of  access  he  turned  back  and 
made  his  first  landing  on  the  alluring  shores  of  a 
still  larger  island  to  the  north.  He  called  this 
Guadalupe,  for  Santa  Maria  de  Guadalupe  in  Estra- 
madura.  Here  he  made  his  first  acquaintance  with 
the  fierce  Caribs,  some  of  whom  he  took  along 
with  him,  together  with  some  women  captives  who 
had  been  brought  from  Borinquen  (Puerto  Rico). 
As  he  continued  north  he  named  Montserrat  from 
a  mountain  near  Barcelona  upon  which  there  was  a 
famous  monastery,  and  Antigua  from  Santa  Maria 
la  Antigua,  whose  great  sanctuary  was  in  Valladolid. 
The  next  that  came  in  view  gave  such  delight  to  the 
explorer  by  its  charming  aspect  that  he  called  it  St. 
Christopher,  some  say  in  honour  of  his  own  patron 


42  THE   WEST  INDIES 

saint,  and  some  from  a  fancied  resemblance  of  its 
great  mountain  to  a  gigantic  person  bearing  a 
smaller  one  upon  his  back  after  the  manner  of  the 
self-sacrificing  person  in  the  legend.  The  island  is 
now  commonly  known  as  St.  Kitt's.  San  Martin 
was  also  one  of  the  discoveries  of  this  trip,  and  Santa 
Cruz  and  the  whole  procession  of  Virgins,  which  re- 
minded the  Admiral  of  St,  Ursula  and  the  unfortu- 
nate ii,ooo  maidens  of  the  story. 

Skirting  along  the  southern  coast  of  Puerto  Rico 
he  made  a  landing  at  the  western  end  of  the  island, 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  San  Juan  Bautista. 
There  were  gushing  springs  where  he  went  ashore, 
and  he  named  the  spot  Aguadilla,  and  behold  it  is 
so  called  unto  this  day.  He  did  not  leave  the 
women  whom  he  had  rescued,  but  took  them  over 
to  Hispaniola  with  him.  There  is  a  romantic  story 
to  the  effect  that  the  friendly  chief  Guacanagari  was 
enamoured  of  one  of  these,  by  the  name  of  Catalina, 
and  induced  her  and  her  companions  to  disappear 
with  him  into  the  forest,  whereupon  he  was  re- 
garded as  a  renegade  and  an  enemy,  and  was  subse- 
quently treated  accordingly. 

When  at  last  La  Navidad  was  regained  near  the 
end  of  1493,  it  was  a  scene  of  desolation.  The  fort 
was  dismantled,  the  garrison  was  dead,  and  the  In- 
dian village  of  Guarico  had  been  burned.  Some  of 
the  Spaniards  had  ventured  into  the  mountains  in 
search  of  gold,  but  the  cacique  of  the  region  was  the 
Carib  invader  Coanabo,  who  ruled  in  the  heart  of 
the  land  of  gold.  He  had  not  only  welcomed  the 
intruders"  with  bloody  hands  to  hospitable  graves," 


DISCOVERY    OF    HISPANIOLA. 
From  Herrera's  History  of  the  West  Indies. 


THE  PROCESS   OF  DISCOVERY  43 

but  had  sallied  forth  from  his  stronghold  in  the 
mountains  with  warriors  and  had  slaughtered  those 
in  the  fort  and  wiped  out  the  village  of  the  mild 
Arawak  chieftain  who  had  encouraged  the  despoilers 
of  the  land.  This  was  discouraging,  and  the  site 
for  a  colony  was  abandoned  and  a  new  one  sought 
farther  east. 

Columbus  bethought  him  of  Monte  Cristi  and  the 
River  of  Gold,  some  forty  miles  east  of  Cape  Hai- 
tien,  and  in  a  spacious  bay  beyond  the  river's  mouth 
he  decided  to  plant  his  colony.  It  was  in  January, 
1494,  and  he  built  a  fort  and  a  church,  and  in  a 
couple  of  months  had  founded  the  first  real  settle- 
ment in  the  New  World,  which  he  called  the  City  of 
Isabella.  It  was  a  starting-place  for  the  search  for 
gold,  and  a  roadway  was  constructed  through  the 
mountain  gorges  to  the  valley  on  the  other  side 
down  which  flowed  the  Rio  del  Oro  (the  Yaqui). 
Columbus  himself  headed  a  force  of  four  hundred 
of  his  men,  some  of  them  mounted  on  horses,  and 
with  flags  flying,  drums  beating,  and  helmets  gleam- 
ing in  the  sun,  the  cavalcade  forced  its  way  toward 
the  golden  realm  of  Cibao  through  what  came  to  be 
known  as  the  Pass  of  the  Hidalgos.  He  established 
a  fort,  or  mining  station,  which  he  called  Santo 
Tomas  de  Yanico,  visited  the  Indian  villages,  and 
gathered  gold,  insomuch  that  in  February  a  vessel 
was  sent  to  Spain  to  bear  it  to  the  King  as  earnest 
of  what  was  to  be  expected. 

Leaving  a  garrison  of  fifty-six  men  at  the  fort, 
under  command  of  Pedro  Margarita,  the  Admiral 
returned    to    Isabella,    but    word    soon    came    of   a 


44  THE   WEST  INDIES 

hostile  dispt)sition  on  the  part  of  the  Indians  in  the 
valley,  and  a  reinforcement  of  fifty  men  was  dis- 
patched. The  Spaniards  dealt  in  a  grasping  and 
cruel  manner  with  the  subjects  of  Coanabo,  and 
when  a  force  of  five  hundred  men,  under  Marga- 
rita, was  sent  exploring  about  the  Cibao  region,  Don 
Alonso  de  Ojeda  taking  command  of  the  fort,  a 
dangerous  spirit  was  aroused  among  the  subjects 
of  the  implacable  Carib  of  the  mountains. 

Columbus,  having  got  his  colony  started  upon  its 
career  of  gathering  gold,  deemed  all  safe,  and  putting 
a  council  presided  over  by  his  brother  in  charge, 
took  to  the  water  again.  He  explored  along  the 
southern  coast  of  Cuba  to  the  westward  for  some 
distance,  and  then  turned  south  and  discovered 
Jamaica.  He  called  it  Santiago,  but  the  native 
name  Xaymaca,  "  land  of  the  fountains,"  has  pre- 
vailed, just  as  the  original  designation  for  the  cen- 
tral part  of  Cuba  has  displaced  J  nana  and  several 
other  appellations  for  that  island.  The  navigator 
turned  back  to  the  Cuban  coast  and  continued  to 
trace  it  westward  until  he  positively  declared  that  it 
was  part  of  the  mainland  of  Cathay.  In  fact,  he 
had  an  instrument  drawn  up  to  that  effect  and  at- 
tested before  a  notary,  which  did  not  prevent  Cuba 
from  terminating  in  a  cape  to  the  west.  The  small 
islands  among  which  he  passed  on  a  part  of  his 
course  he  called  the  Garden  of  the  Queen.  Having 
decided  that  there  was  no  end  to  Cuba,  he  turned 
east  again,  skirted  the  whole  southern  coast  of  Haiti, 
and  landed  on  the  island  of  Mona,  which  received 
its  name  from  him.      It  was  now  that  he  is  said  to 


THE  PROCESS  OF  DISCOVERY  45 

have  "  fallen  into  a  lethargy,"  and  was  taken  to 
Isabella  in  September,  1494,  where  he  lay  sick  for 
several  months. 

The  colony  did  not  flourish.  It  was  surrounded 
by  swamps  and  proved  to  be  unhealthy,  and  the 
greedy  quest  for  gold  and  the  reckless  treatment  of 
the  natives  had  bred  serious  trouble.  As  soon  as 
the  great  Columbus  was  on  his  feet  again,  he  and 
his  brother  Bartholomew  took  energetic  measures  to 
put  down  the  troublesome  natives  who  objected  to 
being  plundered.  Ojeda,  who  had  been  left  in  com- 
mand of  the  fort,  had  succeeded  in  capturing  the 
intractable  Carib  cacique  in  the  Cibao  Mountains, 
and  now  an  army  with  horses  and  guns  and  blood- 
hounds marched  up  the  valley,  and  spread  slaughter 
and  devastation  among  the  villages  of  the  terrified 
natives.  There  was  no  more  resistance  in  that 
quarter,  and  Guarionex,  the  cacique  of  Samana, 
was  forced  to  pay  tribute  in  nuggets  of  gold.  Five 
shiploads  of  the  subjugated  natives  were  sent  to 
Seville  to  be  sold  as  slaves,  of  which  Queen  Isabella, 
greatly  to  her  credit,  did  not  approve. 

Columbus  was  losing  ground  in  the  royal  favour 
during  his  prolonged  absence,  and  one  Juan  Aguado 
was  sent  out  to  inquire  into  his  doings.  This  the 
bold  discoverer  did  not  like;  and  after  some  high 
words  with  the  envoy,  he  left  his  brother  Bartholo- 
mew in  command  as  Adelantado,  and  set  out  for 
Spain  with  the  Nina,  March  10,  1496.  He  arrived  at 
Cadiz  in  bad  spirits,  but  his  reception  cheered  him  up, 
and  he  undertook  to  get  up  another  expedition  for 
the  "Indies."    It  was  May  31, 1498, when  he  got  away 


46  THE   WEST  INDIES 

from  San  Lucar,  with  six  vessels,  for  his  third  voy- 
age. He  took  a  still  more  southerly  route  this  time, 
and  stopped  at  Cape  Verde.  Leaving  there  July  4th, 
he  had  a  hard  voyage,  and  was  in  distress  for  water 
when  on  the  last  day  of  the  month  three  peaks  that 
seemed  to  blend  in  one  were  descried  in  the  dis- 
tance. In  devout  thankfulness  he  made  for  this 
new  land,  and  named  it  La  Trinidad,  "  The  Trin- 
ity." He  entered  the  Gulf  of  Paria  by  the  southern 
channel,  lingered  long  enough  to  supply  his  imme- 
diate wants,  and  passed  out  to  the  north.  The 
capes  and  headlands  of  the  South  American  coast 
he  took  to  be  islands,  and  gave  them  little  heed. 
On  his  way  northward,  hastening  back  to  his  colony 
on  Espanola,  he  discovered  the  islands  of  Margarita, 
Grenada,  which  he  called  Ascension,  and  St.  Vin- 
cent. 

By  the  end  of  August  Columbus  was  again  at  Isa- 
bella. The  colonists  had  reduced  all  that  part  of 
the  island  to  subjection,  and  had  founded  the  city 
of  Santo  Domingo  on  the  southern  coast,  but  they 
had  been  quarrelling  among  themselves,  one  Roldan 
having  headed  a  revolt  against  Bartolomeo  Colon, 
the  Admiral's  brother.  The  matter  was  composed 
by  giving  Roldan  an  office  and  dividing  land  and 
labourers,  practically  slaves,  among  his  followers. 
Some,  however,  went  home  to  Spain,  taking  two 
shiploads  of  slaves  along,  which  so  incensed  the 
Queen  that  they  were  all  set  free.  But  the  ex- 
colonists  fomented  trouble  for  Columbus,  and  as  the 
colony  had  proved  a  disappointment,  the  promised 
streams  of  gold  failing  to  reach  the  treasury,  Fran- 


THE  PROCESS  OF  DISCOVERY  47 

CISCO  de  Bobadilla  was  sent  out  to  investigate,  and 
was  made  governor  in  place  of  the  discoverer.  He 
took  a  letter  directing  all  forts  and  arms  to  be  turned 
over  to  him,  and  arrived  in  Hispaniola,  October, 
1500. 

Ojeda  had  been  making  trouble  by  trying  to  seize 
authority,  but  had  been  suppressed  ;  the  natives  had 
been  gathered  about  the  military  stations  to  be 
Christianised,  and  gold-hunting  was  active  ;  but 
Bobadilla  proceeded  to  give  things  a  new  turn.  He 
sent  Columbus  home  in  chains,  but  his  harsh  and 
high-handed  methods  produced  a  reaction,  and  Nic- 
olas de  Ovando  was  sent  out  to  supersede  him,  arriv- 
ing in  the  spring  of  1502  with  thirty  ships.  The 
vessel  in  which  Bobadilla  was  sent  back  to.  Spain, 
with  considerable  treasure,  was  lost  in  a  storm.  By 
this  time  Isabella  had  been  abandoned,  and  the  capi- 
tal of  the  colony  was  established  at  Santo  Domingo, 
which  had  been  founded  by  Bartolomeo  Colon 
in  1496  while  his  brother  was  absent  between  his 
second  and  third  voyages.  The  city  was  named  for 
their  father  Dominico,  the  worthy  weaver  of  Genoa, 
or  rather  for  his  patron  saint.  A  soldier  named 
Diaz  had  fled  over  the  mountains  from  Isabella  to 
escape  punishment  for  some  offence,  and  got  into 
the  good  graces  of  a  native  woman  near  the  southern 
side  of  the  island,  on  the  river  Ozama,  where  he 
found  much  gold.  With  this  as  a  propitiatory  offer- 
ing he  returned  to  headquarters  and  was  pardoned. 
Bartolomeo  Colon  thereupon  proceeded  by  water 
to  the  southern  coast  and  established  a  fort  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  in  which  Diaz  had  made  his  dis- 


48  THE  WEST  INDIES 

covery,  and  there  the  city  of  Santo  Domingo  was 
started. 

In  the  spring  of  1502,  after  Ovando  had  been  sent 
out  as  governor  of  the  colony  at  Santo  Domingo, 
the  indefatigable  Christopher  succeeded  once  more 
in  getting  up  an  expedition  for  new  discoveries.  It 
consisted  of  four  caravels  with  one  hundred  and  fifty 
men,  and  he  set  out  from  Cadiz  on  the  9th  of  May. 
He  was  instructed  to  keep  clear  of  the  colony  on  the 
island  of  Hispaniola  and  attend  strictly  to  the  busi- 
ness of  making  new  discoveries,  but  after  passing 
through  the  Caribbees  between  the  islands  of  Mar- 
tinique and  St.  Lucia,  which  he  was  the  first  to  dis- 
cover, he  encountered  a  storm  which  disabled  the 
largest  of  his  vessels.  It  was  the  same  storm  that 
sent  his  old  oppressor  Bobadilla  and  his  treasures  to 
the  bottom  of  the  sea.  He  ventured  into  Santo 
Domingo  and  called  upon  Ovando  for  relief,  but 
failed  to  get  it.  Patching  up  his  shattered  vessels 
as  best  he  could,  he  made  his  way  through  the 
"  Garden  of  the  Queen  "  once  more  to  Yucatan, 
and  groped  down  the  coast  of  Honduras,  hearing 
perhaps  of  the  region  of  Veragua  which  was  to 
furnish  a  lordly  title  to  his  descendants. 

He  got  as  far  south  as  Darien,  vainly  seeking  for 
some  opening  which  would  enable  him  to  go  on  his 
westward  way  in  search  of  the  elusive  realm  of  the 
Grand  Khan.  After  cruising  about  for  some  months, 
and  contemplating  the  establishment  of  a  permanent 
colony  on  the  mainland,  he  wandered  back  toward 
Cuba  in  search  of  supplies.  Off  the  north  coast  of 
Jamaica  he  was  caught  in  a  storm  again  and  took 


THE  PROCESS  OF  DISCOVERY  49 

refuge  in  a  bay,  which  he  called  Santa  Gloria,  in 
thankfulness  for  his  escape,  but  which  is  now  called 
St.  Ann's  Bay.  The  refuge  in  which  his  wrecked 
vessels  are  said  to  have  finally  gone  ashore  is  still 
called  Don  Christopher's  Cove.  Weary  and  worn 
with  his  buffetings,  racked  with  painful  disease,  and 
tormented  with  the  mutiny  of  his  crews,  he  lay  here 
for  months  waiting  for  relief.  Even  the  rude  natives 
refused  to  supply  his  wants.  It  was  then  that,  hav- 
ing calculated  the  time  of  an  eclipse  of  the  moon,  he 
threatened  to  deprive  them  of  the  light  of  that  lu- 
minary if  they  did  not  obey  him.  When,  true  to  the 
threat,  the  light  of  the  moon  went  out,  they  came 
in  great  alarm  and  implored  him  to  restore  it, 
promising  humble  obedience  in  future.  The  wily 
old  Italian  retired  from  view  to  work  his  wonders, 
and  when  it  was  time  for  the  shadow  to  pass  off  the 
moon's  face  he  returned  and  graciously  announced 
to  the  trembling  pagans  that  their  prayer  would  be 
heeded.  He  had  no  further  trouble  with  them. 
He  had  got  word  to  Ovando  and  to  his  brother  Bar- 
tholomew by  sending  a  venturesome  sailor  by  the 
name  of  Diego  Mendez  across  the  dangerous  chan- 
nel to  the  coast  of  Hispaniola.  Finally  two  vessels 
were  sent  to  his  relief,  and  he  went  home  to  die, 
reaching  Seville  September  7,  1504. 

The  work  of  Columbus  was  done,  and  the  process 
of  discovering  the  archipelago,  which  he  called  "  the 
Indies,"  may  be  regarded  as  finished.  He  died  in 
the  belief  that  he  had  reached  the  far  East  by  a 
western  route,  and  with  no  conception  of  the  conti- 
nents whose  verge  he  had  barely  touched.     Many  of 


50 


THE   WEST  INDIES 


the  smaller  islands  had  not  been  visited,  and  no 
settlement  was  made  elsewhere  than  on  Espafiola  in 
his  lifetime,  but  nearly  all  that  has  been  called  the 
West  Indies  came  within  the  range  of  his  explora- 
tions. 


CHAPTER  V 

SPANISH    POSSESSION   AND   ITS    EFFECT 

IT  was  after  the  return  of  Columbus  to  Spain  from 
his  first  voyage  to  "  the  Indies,"  with  his  glow- 
ing report  of  discoveries,  that  Pope  Alexander  VI. 
obligingly  issued  his  famous  bull,  running  a  line 
across  the  face  of  the  earth  from  north  to  south,  a 
hundred  leagues  west  of  the  Azores  and  the  Cape 
Verde  Islands,  and  declaring  that  all  "  heathen 
lands  "  discovered  and  to  be  discovered  west  of  that 
line  should  belong  to  Spain  and  all  east  of  it  to 
Portugal.  By  that  indefeasible  title  all  these  "  In- 
dies "  of  the  west  and  the  mainland  thereabouts  of 
whatever  extent  became  the  exclusive  property  of 
the  Spanish  monarchy,  to  have  and  to  hold  against 
all  comers.  By  the  treaty  of  Tordesillas  the  line  of 
division  between  the  possessions  of  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal was  removed  to  three  hundred  and  seventy 
leagues  west  of  Cape  Verde,  but  the  title  still  rested 
upon  the  Pope's  bull.  It  was  this  change  of  the 
meridian  of  the  infallible  authority  on  rights  of  dis- 
covery and  possession  that  gave  Portugal  its  ground 
for  claiming  Brazil.      It  was  not  until  1509  that  the 

5x 


52  THE  WEST  INDIES 

Spanish  colonists  began  to  reach  beyond  the  island 
of  Hispaniola.  By  this  time  all  the  native  tribes  in 
that  island  had  been  subdued  by  the  most  atrocious 
cruelties;  their  lands  and  themselves  had  been  ap- 
portioned among  their  conquerors  by  the  process  of 
repartimiento  (allotment),  and  the  centre  of  Spanish 
power  was  fully  established  at  Santo  Domingo,  on 
the  southern  coast,  where  Bartolomeo  Colon  had 
built  his  castle. 

There  had  been  five  little  kingdoms  in  the  island 
at  the  time  of  the  discovery,  and  the  first  to  be 
brought  into  subjection  was  that  of  Guanacagari, 
the  cacique  who  had  befriended  the  invaders,  and 
whose  realm  was  on  the  north  coast  toward  the  east. 
Next  Coanabo,  the  Carib  chief  in  the  Cibao  Moun- 
tains, was  captured  for  presuming  to  resist  the  gold- 
hunters.  His  territory  was  called  Maguana.  The 
kingdom  of  Guarionex  was  on  the  north  coast  east 
of  the  Yaqui  River,  extending  to  the  Bay  of  Samana, 
and  including  the  river  valley  and  the  Vega  Real. 
On  the  south  coast,  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  island, 
was  the  cacique  Colubanama,  whose  realm  was  called 
Higuey.  The  fifth  kingdom  was  a  populous  domain 
at  the  western  end  of  the  island,  called  Xaragua,  and 
ruled  by  Behechio,  whose  beautiful  sister  was  the 
wife  of  Coanabo. 

All  these  were  effectually  subdued  and  their  pos- 
sessions distributed  among  the  Spanish  officers  and 
their  followers.  The  Columbus  family  received  a 
large  allotment  in  the  choicest  part  of  the  island, 
and  the  city  of  Santo  Domingo,  the  oldest  of  the 
New  World  and  long  the  capital  of  the  colony,  be- 


CHRISTOPHER   COLUMBUS. 

Painted  in  1542  at  the  court  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  by  Sir  Antonio 
Moro,  from  two  miniatures  in  the  palace  of  El  Pardo,  which 
miniatures  have  since  been  destroyed.  The  original  painting  is 
now  in  the  collection  of  C.  F.  Gunther,  Esq.,  Chicago,  by  whose 
kind  permission  this  reproduction  has  been  made. 


SPANISH  POSSESSION  AND  ITS  EFFECT       53 

came  their  headquarters.  Among  the  forces  of  sub- 
jugation was  a  pack  of  fierce  bloodhounds,  but  they 
were  no  more  ruthless  than  the  soldiers.  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  had  been  much  concerned  for  the  con- 
version of  these  poor  heathen  to  the  true  faith,  and 
the  pious  Admiral  who  scattered  holy  names  among 
the  islands  so  profusely  wrote  in  one  of  his  letters : 
"  Your  Highness  ought  to  rejoice  that  they  will  soon 
become  Christians,  and  that  they  will  be  taught  the 
good  customs  of  your  kingdom  "  ;  and  yet  the  good 
Christopher,  overcome  by  his  eagerness  for  golden 
treasures  to  send  to  his  sovereign — and  to  keep  for 
himself — countenanced  the  atrocities  by  which  the 
heathen  were  converted,  not  into  Christians,  but  in- 
to slaves  or  tenants  of  the  tomb.  The  resistance  of 
the  natives  was  not  to  the  loss  of  their  independence 
or  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  Christian  King,  but  to 
forced  labour  in  the  mines,  to  a  tribute  which  they 
could  not  pay,  and  to  the  ravaging  of  their  fields 
and  "  provision  grounds,"  to  feed  the  Spanish  sol- 
diers. The  Spaniards  sought  to  obtain  the  precious 
gold  by  the  toil  of  others,  for  while  they  would  en- 
dure hardships  and  dangers  in  war  and  adventure, 
they  would  not  work.  The  Indians  did  not  like  to 
work  except  in  their  own  quiet  way  and  for  their 
own  benefit,  and  under  the  galling  servitude  they 
died  by  the  thousands.  Many  perished  from  direct 
acts  of  cruel  violence,  many  were  starved  to  death, 
and  multitudes  committed  deliberate  suicide. 

The  result  was  that  the  labour  force  by  which  the 
Spanish  colonists  strove  to  enrich  themselves  rapidly 
died  out,  and  the  goose  that  laid  the  golden  Q^<g  was 


54  THE   WEST  INDIES 

in  danger  of  expiring.  Then  they  set  about  captur- 
ing natives  from  the  other  islands  and  forcing  them 
into  servitude  in  the  mines  and  on  the  plantations 
of  Hispaniola.  In  1509,  Ferdinand,  whose  queen 
had  been  squeamish  a  few  years  before  about  the 
sending  of  slaves  from  "  the  Indies  "  to  Spain,  but 
was  now  dead,  authorised  the  sale  of  the  Lucayans 
into  slavery  on  the  Antilles.  They  were  enticed 
from  their  own  islands  by  an  alluring  promise  that 
they  were  to  see  their  ancestors  in  a  land  of  happi- 
ness, and  in  a  few  years  the  Bahamas  were  depopu- 
lated, and  the  gentle  Lucayans  died  out  in  their 
bondage  like  the  other  Arawaks. 

Not  growing  rich  fast  enough  by  this  policy  of 
starving  and  slaughtering  their  labour  force,  the 
colonists  began  to  seek  new  fields.  The  earliest 
movement  was  that  of  Ponce  de  Leon  from  the 
eastern  end  of  Hispaniola  to  the  island  of  Borinquen, 
which  Columbus  had  called  San  Juan  Bautista,  and 
which  has  since  been  known  as  Puerto  Rico.  One  of 
the  places  at  which  Columbus  had  landed  was  Agua- 
dilla  on  the  western  coast,  and  there  De  Leon  made 
his  first  landing  for  observation  in  1508.  Learning 
that  there  was  much  wealth  as  well  as  many  people 
fit  for  slaves  in  the  island,  he  returned  to  Santo  Do- 
mingo for  an  armed  force  and  a  number  of  colonists. 
He  found  a  splendid  bay  on  the  northern  coast, 
where  in  15 10  he  established  the  town  of  Caparra, 
on  the  side  of  the  bay  where  is  now  the  Pueblo 
Viejo,  or  Old  Village,  The  next  year,  however,  on 
a  more  favourable  site  he  founded  the  city  of  San 
Juan  de  Puerto  Rico,  "  St.  John  of  the   Splendid 


SPANISH  POSSESSION  AND  ITS  EFFECT       55 

Port,"  and  a  few  years  later  Caparra  was  aban- 
doned. Ponce  de  Leon  pursued  the  fatal  policy 
of  dividing  up  the  territory  into  personal  allot- 
ments by  the  process  of  repartimiento,  and  forcing 
the  inhabitants  into  servitude,  slaughtering  them 
without  mercy,  and  hunting  them  down  with  blood- 
hounds when  they  resisted  or  ran  away ;  and  it 
produced  the  same  effect  as  in  Hispaniola.  But 
in  1 5 12,  the  year  after  he  got  San  Juan  established, 
he  was  carried  away  on  his  quest  for  the  fountain  of 
youth,  and  the  colony  languished.  There  was  an 
invasion  of  Caribs  and  a  destructive  hurricane,  and 
in  a  few  years  the  island  was  deserted  by  the  Span- 
ish colonists.  For  a  century  or  more  it  was  left 
undisturbed  and  almost  without  inhabitants. 

After  the  death  of  the  great  discoverer,  his  son, 
Diego  Colon,  became  a  person  of  consequence  in 
Spain.  He  married  Dona  Maria  de  Toledo,  a  niece 
of  the  Duke  of  Alva,  and  succeeded  to  the  rights 
and  dignities  of  his  father  in  the  New  World.  He 
came  out  to  Hispaniola  in  1509,  and  invested  him- 
self with  the  title  of  Viceroy  of  the  Colonies  in 
America.  He  took  possession  of  Santo  Domingo, 
and  built  a  splendid  palace  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ozama,  a  solid  structure  that  stands  there  in  ruins 
to-day,  and  is  still  called  the  Casa  Colon.  Diego 
was  a  man  of  considerable  enterprise  as  well  as  great 
pretension,  and  did  much  to  extend  the  colonial 
domain  of  Spain  in  the  Antilles.  In  the  first  year 
of  his  power  he  sent  an  expedition  to  Jamaica  under 
Juan  d'Esquivel,  who  built  a  town  on  the  north 
coast,  and  called  it  Sevilla  d'Oro.     The  oldest  town 


56  THE   WEST  INDIES 

now  on  the  island  was  established  in  1525  on  the 
southern  coast,  and  called  Santiago  de  la  Vega.  It 
is  the  present  "  Spanish  Town."  D'Esquivel  under- 
took to  deal  humanely  with  the  natives,  but  under 
his  successors  the  insatiate  greed  for  gold  asserted 
itself,  and  the  process  of  extermination  by  forced 
labour  and  atrocious  cruelty  began.  This  destruc- 
tive operation  was  intended  to  compel  productive 
labour  in  the  mines  and  on  the  plantations,  and  to 
force  the  payment  of  impossible  tribute  in  gold  and 
cotton.  It  was  also  resorted  to  as  a  means  of  sup- 
pressing resistance  whenever  the  wretched  victims 
presumed  to  attempt  it.  The  result  was  the  rapid 
dying  out  of  the  native  population,  which  had 
almost  disappeared  in  a  generation,  and  the  gradual 
substitution  of  negro  slaves  as  a  labour  force. 

Cuba  was  the  first  of  the  Greater  Antilles  to  be 
discovered  and  the  last  to  be  actually  occupied.  It 
was  not  known  to  be  an  island  until  after  the  death 
of  Columbus.  In  15 11,  Diego  Velasquez  was  sent 
thither  from  Santo  Domingo  by  Diego  Colon  with 
four  vessels  and  three  hundred  men.  He  landed  at 
a  place  near  Guantanamo,  but  the  first  permanent 
settlement  was  made  at  Baracoa  on  the  north  coast. 
Among  his  companions  was  Hernando  Cortez,  who, 
in  1 5 19,  sailed  from  the  young  city  of  Santiago  for 
Yucatan  and  proceeded  to  his  career  of  conquest 
in  Mexico,  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  Velasquez. 
Another  companion  of  Velasquez  was  Bartolome 
Las  Casas,  whose  father  had  been  a  companion  of 
Columbus  in  his  early  voyages.  He  had  himself 
been  educated  at  Salamanca  and  destined  for  the 


SPANISH  POSSESSION  AND  ITS  EFFECT       5/ 

priesthood,  but  being  of  an  adventurous  disposition 
he  had  accompanied  his  father  on  the  voyage  of 
1498,  and  afterwards  came  out  to  Hispaniola  with 
Ovando  and  became  one  of  the  colonists.  His  sus- 
ceptibilities were  outraged  by  the  cruelties  perpe- 
trated upon  the  natives,  and  in  Cuba  he  tried  in  vain 
to  stop  them.  He  took  his  allotment  of  land  and 
of  slaves,  but  he  freed  the  latter,  and  cried  out 
against  the  whole  infamous  system.  In  15 16  he 
went  to  Spain  and  got  a  commission  appointed  to 
go  to  "  the  Indies  "  and  put  a  stop  to  the  inhuman 
treatment  of  the  natives,  but  it  accomplished 
nothing.  To  mitigate  the  evil,  as  he  thought,  he 
encouraged  bringing  out  negroes  as  slaves,  but 
awakening  to  the  fact  that  negroes  were  also  human 
beings,  and  finding  that  they,  too,  were  treated  in 
an  inhuman  manner,  he  retired  to  a  monastery  in 
Santo  Domingo  filled  with  disgust  and  indignation, 
and  afterwards  went  to  Mexico,  where  he  became  a 
bishop. 

Doubtless  the  feelings  of  Las  Casas,  who  was 
called  "  The  Apostle  of  the  Indies,"  led  him  to  ex- 
aggerate when,  years  after  the  event,  he  wrote  his 
famous  Brevissima  Relacion  de  la  Destrnycion  de  las 
Indias.  After  speaking  of  the  gentle  and  harmless 
character  of  the  natives  of  the  islands,  he  said,  ac- 
cording to  an  old  English  version  of  his  work — there 
is  no  recent  one : 

"  To  these  quiet  lambs,  endued  with  such  blessed 
qualities,  came  the  Spaniards  like  most  cruel  tygres, 
wolves,  and  lions,  enraged  with  a  sharp  and  tedious  hun- 
ger ;  for  these  forty  years  past,  minding  nothing  else  but 


58  THE   WEST  INDIES 

the  slaughter  of  these  unfortunate  wretches,  whom  with 
divers  kinds  of  torment,  neither  seen  nor  heard  of  be- 
fore, they  have  cruelly  and  inhumanely  butchered  ;  that 
of  3,000,000  of  people  which  Hispaniola  itself  did 
contain,  there  are  left  remaining  alive  scarce  three  hun- 
dred persons.  And  for  the  island  of  Cuba,  which  con- 
tains as  much  ground  in  length  as  from  Valladolid  to 
Rome,  it  lies  wholly  untilled  and  ruined.  The  islands 
of  St.  John  and  Jamaica  lie  waste  and  desolate.  The 
Lucaya  Islands,  neighbouring  toward  the  north  upon 
Cuba  and  Hispaniola,  being  above  sixty  or  thereabouts 
— with  those  islands  that  are  vulgarly  called  the  Islands 
of  the  Gyants,  of  which  that  which  is  the  least  fertile  is 
more  fruitful  than  the  King  of  Spain's  garden  at  Sevil, 
being  situate  in  a  pure  and  temperate  air,  are  now 
totally  unpeopled  and  destroyed,  the  inhabitants  thereof, 
amounting  to  above  500,000  souls,  partly  killed  and 
partly  forced  away  to  work  in  other  places  ;  so  that  there 
going  a  ship  to  visit  those  parts,  and  to  glean  the  re- 
mainder of  those  distressed  wretches,  there  could  be 
found  no  more  than  eleven  men.  Other  islands  there 
were  near  St.  John,  more  than  thirty  in  number,  which 
were  totally  made  desert." 

Finally  Las  Casas  confidently  avers — 

"  that  for  those  forty  years,  wherein  the  Spaniards  exer- 
cised their  abominable  cruelties  and  detestable  tyrannies 
in  those  parts,  that  there  have  innocently  perished  above 
12,000,000  of  souls,  women  and  children  being  numbered 
in  this  sad  and  fatal  list.  Moreover,  I  do  verily  believe 
that  I  should  speak  within  compass  should  I  say  that 
above  15,000,000  were  consumed  in  this  massacre." 

The  good  bishop's  book  appeared  in  1542,  twenty 


SPANISH  POSSESSION  AND  ITS  EFFECT       59 

years  after  he  retired  to  the  Dominican  monastery, 
and  twelve  years  after  he  shook  the  dust  of  the 
Indies  from  his  feet,  and  his  statistics  are  faulty; 
but  the  native  population  of  Cuba  had  been  reduced 
to  about  4000  in  1552,  and  in  1564  there  were  said 
to  be  barely  sixty  families  of  aborigines  leading  a 
vagrant  life  in  the  western  part  of  the  island.  The 
Greater  Antilles  were  virtually  stripped  of  their  na- 
tive population,  which  was  largely  replaced  by  Afri- 
can slaves.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  "  St, 
John  "  of  our  old  English  translation  of  Las  Casas 
is  San  Juan,  now  Puerto  Rico,  and  not  the  small 
island  which  bears  that  name  at  present.  In  fact, 
the  Spaniards  met  with  such  fierce  resistance  when 
they  attempted  to  kidnap  the  Caribs  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles  that  they  concluded  to  leave  them  alone, 
and  never  attempted  to  colonise  those  islands, 
though  claiming  them  as  possessions. 

Before  the  voyages  of  Columbus  the  Portuguese 
navigators  had  indulged  in  the  trafific  of  buying 
negro  slaves  from  the  Moors  in  Africa  and  selling 
them  in  the  peninsula.  They  had  been  bought  both 
in  Portugal  and  in  Spain.  A  few  had  been  brought 
out  with  the  first  colonists  to  Hispaniola,  and  as 
early  as  1505  the  Spanish  traders  to  "  the  Indies  " 
began  to  bring  them  for  sale  as  workers  in  the 
mines.  The  dying  off  and  killing  off  of  the  natives 
speedily  stimulated  the  traffic,  and  it  was  even  en- 
couraged by  the  priests,  who  had  some  little  kind- 
ness for  the  "  Indians,"  whom  they  desired  to 
convert,  but  hardly  regarded  the  African  negro  as  a 
convertible  human   being.     In    15 17,  the  importa- 


6o  THE  WEST  INDIES 

tion  of  4000  African  slaves  yearly  was  formally 
authorised  by  the  Spanish  Government,  and  the 
trade  was  granted  as  a  monopoly  to  the  chamber- 
lain of  Carlos  v.,  and  he  sold  it  out  to  a  company 
of  Genoese  merchants.  Spaniards  could  not  deal 
directly  with  Africa  on  account  of  the  papal  bull 
giving  that  side  of  the  world  to  Portugal,  but  enter- 
prising English  rovers  of  the  sea  respected  neither 
the  bull  of  Alexander  nor  Spain's  monopoly  in 
trade  with  her  colonies,  and  they  began  to  intrude 
with  troublesome  persistency.  Finding  a  profitable 
market  for  slaves,  a  sea-captain,  named  Hawkins, 
afterwards  "  Sir  John,"  began  a  regular  trafific  be- 
tween the  African  coast,  where  he  kidnapped  the 
negroes  or  bought  them  cheap  from  kidnappers,  and 
the  West  Indies,  where  he  disposed  of  his  live  car- 
goes at  a  great  profit. 

The  sugar-cane  had  been  introduced  into  Hispan- 
iola  by  Columbus  from  Cape  Verde.  Sugar  had 
been  known  in  Europe  only  a  few  centuries,  and 
was  still  a  costly  luxury.  Cotton  was  indigenous 
to  the  islands,  and  though  it  had  previously  come 
to  Europe  from  the  East,  it  was  comparatively  ex- 
pensive and  little  used.  Tobacco  soon  began  to  be 
appreciated  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and, 
in  spite  of  denunciations,  the  demand  for  it  gradually 
grew.  The  mines  were  not  so  rich  as  had  been  sup- 
posed, and  when  labour  became  difificult  to  get,  the 
gold-hunters  drifted  away  to  the  "  Spanish  Main," 
as  the  coast  from  the  Orinoco  to  Darien  was  called, 
and  to  Mexico  and  Peru.  Legends  of  El  Dorado, 
the  gilded  king  who  lived  in  a  gorgeous  palace  by  a 


SPANISH  POSSESSION  AND   ITS  EFFECT       6 1 

lake,  and  made  offerings  to  the  Spirit  that  dwelt 
beneath  it  by  covering  his  body  with  gold  dust  and 
washing  it  off  in  its  waters,  enticed  them  like  a 
will-o'-the-wisp  into  the  interior  of  South  America. 
But  the  plantations  of  sugar  and  of  cotton  and 
tobacco,  worked  by  slave  labour,  gradually  became 
more  profitable  than  the  mines,  and  those  who  had 
large  allotments  of  land  grew  rich  in  time,  and  the 
slave  trade  flourished.  The  wretched  negroes  fared 
little  better  than  the  poor  Arawaks,  but  they  en- 
dured it  better,  and  although  the  mortality  among 
them  was  great  by  reason  of  cruel  treatment,  the 
force  was  kept  up  by  importation. 

The  attempt  of  Spain  to  maintain  a  monopoly  of 
trade  and  to  draw  treasures  to  herself  from  her  new 
colonies  was  an  incitement  to  contraband  traffic, 
which  degenerated  into  piracy.  The  voyages  of 
exploration  and  discovery  had  been  made  chiefly  by 
Portugal  and  Spain,  but  England,  France,  and  Hol- 
land had  the  trading  propensity  and  were  on  the 
search  for  markets.  Their  ships  ventured  to  the 
Spanish  islands  first  in  quest  of  traffic,  but  being 
excluded  from  that  by  Spanish  authority,  they  fell 
to  forcing  their  goods  upon  the  colonists  and  com- 
pelling payment.  From  this  it  was  an  easy  step  to 
plundering  the  settlements  or  laying  them  under 
contribution  and  to  lying  in  wait  for  the  treasure 
galleons  of  Spain  and  capturing  them.  The  rovers 
and  corsairs  became  frequent  in  these  waters  by  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  first  effect  of  Spanish 
possession    was    the    extermination    of   the    native 


62  THE   WEST  INDIES 

people  in  those  islands  actually  occupied  and  in  the 
Bahamas.  The  second  was  the  establishment  of 
slavery  and  an  enormous  stimulus  to  the  slave  trade, 
which  afterwards  extended  to  most  of  the  colonies 
of  the  New  World,  including  those  of  Great  Britain, 
planted  much  later.  The  third  was  the  develop- 
ment of  smuggling  and  of  piracy  through  the  restric- 
tions put  upon  trade  and  the  effort  to  monopolise  it 
for  the  benefit  of  Spain  and  the  enrichment  of  her 
ruling  men.  These  evils  were  a  direful  heritage  for 
all  concerned,  and  Spain  is  still  suffering  from  their 
consequences.  During  the  century  after  the  dis- 
coveries of  Columbus,  Spain's  possession  of  the 
West  Indies  was  not  seriously  disputed,  but  her  oc- 
cupation was  confined  to  the  four  large  islands  of 
the  Greater  Antilles,  and  there  the  settlements  did 
not  greatly  increase  or  multiply.  They  were  sub- 
ject to  disastrous  chances,  and  languished  rather 
than  flourished.  Their  history  for  nearly  a  century 
was  almost  a  blank,  save  for  hurricanes  and  earth- 
quakes, and  occasional  piratical  forays  from  the  ships 
of  excluded  nations. 


CHAPTER  VI 

ROVING   TRADERS,    PRIVATEERS,  AND   PIRATES 

THE  first  Englishman  who  attempted  to  trade 
with  the  new  ' '  Indies, ' '  whose  fabulous  wealth 
began  to  be  noised  abroad,  was  Thomas  Tison ;  but 
as  all  traffic  with  Spanish  colonies  by  foreigners  was 
contraband,  he  sent  goods  from  Bristol  to  Spain, 
and  had  them  shipped  from  there.  That  round- 
about process  being  troublesome,  and  perhaps  un- 
profitable, no  scruple  was  made  of  attempting  a 
direct  trade  even  though  it  was  regarded  as  wicked 
smuggling.  There  is  record  of  a  ship  fitted  out  by- 
royal  authority  in  1527,  and  devoutly  named  Domi- 
niis  Vobiscum,  to  engage  in  this  sinful  pursuit.  It 
was  accompanied  by  other  and  smaller  vessels,  and 
proceeded  boldly  to  Santo  Domingo  and  asked  for 
the  privilege  of  trading  with  the  inhabitants.  The 
request  was  answered  by  a  volley  from  the  batteries 
on  shore,  and  the  ships  were  driven  away,  but  were 
reported  as  finding  more  favourable  opportunities 
for  business  in  Puerto  Rico,  then  called  San  Juan, 
or  St.  John.  English  and  French  "  rovers  "  came 
and  clandestinely  traded  with  "  the  Indians."     The 

63 


64  THE   WEST  INDIES 

cattle  and  hogs  which  had  been  imported  from  Spain 
ran  wild,  increasing  and  multiplying  at  a  marvellous 
rate  in  the  mountains  of  Hispaniola,  and  they  fur- 
nished the  remnants  of  tribes  with  the  means  of 
buying  such  trifles  brought  by  the  traders  as  took 
their  fancy,  and  afforded  supplies  of  provision  and 
large  profits  to  the  traders  themselves.  The  settlers 
of  the  coast  were  not  averse  to  the  illicit  traffic 
when  they  dared  to  encourage  it ;  and  when  they 
did  not,  the  "  rovers  "  were  not  averse  to  forcing  it 
upon  them,  in  spite  of  their  feeble  "  authorities." 

Perhaps  the  most  piratical  of  these  traders  at  first 
were  the  Frenchmen,  who  were  called  corsairs — a 
term  originally  the  same  as  courser,  or  cruiser,  and 
hence  practically  synonymous  with  "  rover."  In 
1536,  one  of  these  laid  Havana — then  a  "  city  " 
barely  seventeen  years  old,  and  really  a  little  unpro- 
tected settlement — under  contribution  and  forced 
from  it  a  ransom  of  seven  hundred  ducats.  Three 
Spanish  vessels  presuming  to  chase  him  afterwards, 
he  captured  them  and  went  back  and  exacted  another 
ransom  as  a  penalty.  In  1538,  a  French  corsair 
entered  the  harbour  of  Santiago  de  Cuba  and  had  a 
lively  fight  with  an  armed  Spanish  vessel,  which 
was  kept  up  for  three  days.  Concluding  that  no 
profitable  bargain  could  be  struck  at  that  port,  the 
Frenchman  quietly  took  leave  under  cover  of  night. 
The  same  year  Havana  was  sacked  and  burnt.  This 
kind  of  dealing  with  the  people  was  kept  up  for 
many  years,  and  in  1554  Havana  was  again  de- 
stroyed in  an  effort  to  trade  with  it.  When  the 
Netherlands  was  at  war  with  Spain  in  consequence 


TRADERS,  PRIVA  TEERS,  AND  FIR  A  TES        65 

of  the  cruel  policy  of  Philip  II.,  after  the  loss  of  the 
seven  provinces,  the  Dutch  began  to  take  a  hand  in 
this  West  Indian  traffic.  It  was  all  very  discourag- 
ing to  Spain's  trade  monopoly  with  her  American 
colonies,  and  dangerous  to  the  galleons  on  the  way 
from  Mexico  and  the  Spanish  Main  with  ducats  and 
doubloons.  Forts  were  built,  some  of  which  still 
frown  upon  the  sunny  harbours;  coast-guards  were 
established,  and  Spanish  warships  patrolled  the 
waters,  but  the  depredations  did  not  cease.  At 
the  same  time  the  enterprising  gold-seekers  had 
mostly  gone  to  Mexico,  or  were  exploring  the  great 
central  isthmus  or  the  southern  continent,  and  the 
planters  were  having  a  hard  time  to  get  work  done 
without  doing  it  themselves.  The  colonies  were 
merely  struggling  along  in  those  trying  times. 

It  was  from  1562  to  1567  that  Captain  Hawkins, 
the  Sir  John  and  M.  P.  of  a  few  years  later,  made 
his  three  trips  to  Sierra  Leone  and  the  Guinea  coast 
to  capture  negroes  and  sell  them  for  slaves  in  the 
Hispaniola  market.  He  took  back  cargoes  of  sugar, 
ginger,  and  hides,  which  he  disposed  of  to  advan- 
tage in  Europe.  It  was  a  profitable  traf^c,  and 
carried  on  devoutly.  Hawkins's  largest  ship  on  his 
second  slave-trading  voyage,  one  of  seven  hundred 
tons,  was  called  the  Jesus,  and  after  escaping  from 
a  gale  with  his  human  cargo,  he  wrote:  "  The  Al- 
mighty God,  who  never  suffereth  his  elect  to  perish, 
sent  us  on  the  i6th  of  February  the  ordinary  breeze. 
Hawkins  had  diflficulty  in  disposing  of  his  cargo  on 
this  trip,  and  got  a  French  corsair  to  help  force  some 
of  the  living  merchandise  upon  colonists  who  did 


66  THE   WEST  INDIES 

not  want  it,  of  course  taking  large  pay  in  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  land.  On  his  third  voyage  to  Africa, 
Hawkins  was  accompanied  by  a  promising  youth  of 
twenty,  Francis  Drake  by  name,  and  on  his  return 
disposed  of  his  slaves  to  advantage  because  the 
Spaniards  no  longer  dared,  even  if  they  desired,  to 
refuse  to  buy,  after  which  he  took  refuge  from  a 
storm  in  Vera  Cruz.  Here  he  was  granted  the 
privilege  of  repairing  his  ships  and  then  treacher- 
ously attacked  by  a  Spanish  fleet.  He  got  away 
with  only  one  of  his  five  vessels,  and  that  in  a 
bad  plight,  and  had  a  miserable  time  on  what 
he  called  the  "  sorrowful  voyage  "  home.  Young 
Drake  had  naturally  conceived  no  violent  love  for 
the  Spanish  on  this  his  first  long  voyage. 

In  1572,  when  only  twenty-five  years  old,  he  went 
forth  as  commander  of  an  expedition  of  his  own, 
which  has  sometimes  been  called  piratical;  but, 
though  there  was  at  that  time  no  actual  war  with 
Spain,  he  had  letters  of  marque  from  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, which  constituted  a  legal  license  to  "  make  re- 
prisals "  upon  the  Spaniards.  He  did  not  operate 
among  the  islands  this  time,  but  made  his  attack 
upon  Nombre  de  Dios  at  the  isthmus,  and  getting  a 
view  of  the  Pacific  was  enticed  into  making  his  long 
and  famous  cruise  in  those  waters  in  search  of  wan- 
dering wealth.  A  few  years  later,  when  there  was 
really  war  between  England  and  Spain,  and  when 
Drake  was  Sir  Francis  and  an  admiral,  he  came  out 
with  a  fleet  of  twenty-five  vessels  and  with  2300 
men,  for  the  avowed  purpose  of  crippling  Spain  by 
an  attack  upon  "  the  Indies."     This  was  in    1585, 


TRADERS,  PRIVA  TEERS,  AND  PIRA  TES        6/ 

and  after  destroying  the  town  of  Santiago  on  the 
Cape  Verde  Islands,  the  doughty  Admiral  proceeded 
westward.  He  reached  the  island  of  St.  Christopher 
late  in  December  and  spent  Christmas  there  putting 
his  ships  in  order. 

Early  in  January,  he  set  out  to  attack  Santo  Do- 
mingo, but  concluded  first  to  demand  a  heavy  ran- 
som, which  he  enforced  by  beginning  to  destroy  the 
town.  He  came  down  in  his  terms  to  "  what  the 
traf^c  would  bear,"  and  being  paid  25,000  ducats, 
directed  his  attention  to  Cartagena  on  the  Spanish 
Main,  and  from  there  went  to  Nombre  de  Dios 
again.  He  collected  large  booty  at  both  places  in- 
stead of  destroying  them.  He  was  presently  called 
off  to  help  dispose  of  the  famous  "  invincible  Ar- 
mada" of  Spain,  which  was  threatening  England. 
In  1595,  he  came  back,  accompanied  by  his  old  com- 
mander Hawkins,  with  twenty-seven  vessels,  includ- 
ing six  of  the  "  Queen's  ships."  When  they  came 
to  the  Caribbees,  there  is  said  to  have  been  a  quarrel 
between  Drake  and  Hawkins,  the  cause  or  conse- 
quence of  which  has  never  been  made  clear;  but  it 
does  not  matter,  for  the  older  mariner  died  then  and 
there,  and  has  been  duly  honoured  in  British  history, 
piratical  old  slave-trader  as  he  was.  Like  Columbus, 
however,  he  is  to  be  judged  with  a  full  regard  for 
the  prevailing  spirit  of  his  time.  Drake  proceeded 
to  Puerto  Rico,  and  made  an  attack  upon  San  Juan, 
but  it  was  a  half-deserted  place  without  wealth,  and 
he  made  nothing  out  of  this  venture,  though  he 
captured  some  stray  vessels. 

Finding  the  islands  an  unprofitable  field  for  his 


68  THE   WEST  INDIES 

operations  at  that  time,  the  knightly  Admiral  went 
on  to  that  region  of  wealth,  "  the  Spanish  Main," 
and  brought  up  again  at  Nombre  de  Dios,  then  the 
treasure  city  of  the  isthmus.  The  people  had  heard 
of  his  approach,  and  in  the  terror  which  his  name 
inspired  had  hidden  their  treasures  and  dispersed 
themselves  in  the  mountains  and  forests  of  Panama. 
Finding  pursuit  futile,  Drake  burnt  the  town  and 
destroyed  every  vessel  in  the  harbour,  leaving  a 
desolate  spot  where  afterwards  Puerto  Bello,  or  the 
"  Beautiful  Port,"  took  the  place  of  Nombre  de  Dios, 
the  "  Name  of  God."  Before  his  fleet  got  away, 
the  famous  old  sea-fighter — not  so  very  old  either 
— succumbed  to  a  sudden  attack  of  dysentery,  and  is 
said  to  have  died  in  full  uniform,  after  delivering  a 
farewell  address  to  his  men.  His  ships  were  after- 
wards attacked  by  a  Spanish  fleet  off  Cuba,  and  had 
to  fight  their  way  out. 

The  rovers,  English,  French,  and  Dutch,  swarmed 
so  among  the  islands,  and  grew  so  piratical,  that  the 
coast  settlements  were  terrorised  and  Spanish  trade 
was  in  danger  of  extinction.  The  galleons  to  and 
from  "  the  Main  "  had  to  sail  in  squadrons  under  the 
protection  of  men-of-war.  Their  usual  course  was  a 
stop  at  Santo  Domingo  and  a  cruise  to  Cartagena 
and  Puerto  Bello  to  gather  treasure,  and  then  out 
through  the  channels  among  the  islands,  beset  with 
piratical  enemies,  and  at  certain  seasons  subject  to 
violent  storms,  for  the  homeward  journey.  So  great 
were  the  perils  and  risks,  that  it  is  recorded  that  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty-three  vessels  expected  in 
Spain  one  year  only  twenty-five  arrived  in  safety. 


TRADERS,  PRIVA  TEERS,  AND  PIRA  TES        69 

Spain  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  was  the 
common  foe  of  England,  France,  and  Holland,  and 
her  domineering  career  was  nearing  its  close.  Her 
title  to  "  the  Indies  "  of  the  West  was  not  yet  seri- 
ously questioned,  and  her  nominal  possession  of  the 
islands  was  not  disputed.  Her  actual  occupation 
did  not  extend  beyond  the  Greater  Antilles,  and  the 
settlements  in  Puerto  Rico  had  practically  died  out. 
The  colonies  of  Haiti,  Jamaica,  and  Cuba,  having 
killed  off  the  native  population,  were  suffering  for 
lack  of  labour,  which  the  enterprising  slave-traders 
were  not  yet  able  fully  to  supply,  while  the  depre- 
dations of  the  roving  privateers,  as  pirates  were 
called  in  time  of  war,  and  of  open  and  avowed 
corsairs,  were  a  serious  discouragement.  Balboa 
had  "  stared  at  the  Pacific  in  wild  surmise  "  as  early 
as  1 5 13;  Cortez  had  gone  from  Cuba  to  Yucatan  in 
1 5 19  and  then  to  his  conquests  in  Mexico;  Ojeda 
and  others  had  prowled  about  the  northern  part  of 
South  America  in  search  of  El  Dorado;  Pizarro  had 
opened  up  the  treasures  of  Peru,  and  De  Soto,  start- 
ing from  Cuba,  had  explored  Florida  and  discovered 
the  Mississippi. 

Adventurous  spirits  from  Spain  no  longer  sought 
for  riches  on  the  islands  of  the  archipelago  which 
Columbus  gained  so  much  glory  in  discovering, 
but  were  attracted  to  the  strip  of  shore  and  the 
unexplored  regions  beyond,  known  as  the  "  Span- 
ish Main  "  and  believed  to  conceal  inexhausti- 
ble wealth.  An  occasional  English  or  Dutch  vessel 
seemed  to  have  something  else  in  view  than  plunder 
or  destruction,  but  for  the  present  those  who  were 


70  THE   WEST  INDIES 

looking  for  chances  to  colonise  shunned  the  islands. 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  on  one  of  his  prospecting  trips 
to  Guiana  and  the  Orinoco  region,  stopped  in  Trin- 
idad, and  in  1595  captured  the  Spanish  town  of  St. 
Josef,  but  did  not  try  to  retain  it.  The  contigu- 
ity of  Trinidad  to  the  South  American  coast,  and 
the  fact  that  its  population  was  divided  between  the 
Arawaks  and  the  Caribs,  who  still  came  from  the 
mainland,  explain  the  existence  of  a  Spanish  town 
here.  It  belonged  rather  to  Venezuela  than  the 
West  Indies.  In  none  of  the  Caribbee  Islands 
properly  so  called  did  the  Spaniards  effect  a  settle- 
ment. 


CHAPTER  VII 

ENGLISH,    FRENCH,    AND    DUTCH    COLONISERS 

IF  the  sixteenth  century  was  one  of  discovery  and 
conquest  in  the  western  world,  the  seventeenth 
was  a  century  of  colonising,  and  it  speedily  became 
evident  that  Spain  could  not  have  it  all  to  herself. 
When  the  infallible  Pope  drew  his  line  across  the 
face  of  the  waters  and  awarded  to  that  nation  all  the 
heathen  land  to  the  west  thereof,  he  did  not  know 
what  a  gigantic  contract  he  assumed,  and  when,  in 
1494,  by  the  treaty  of  Tordesillas,  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal agreed  to  remove  the  dividing  line  two  hundred 
and  seventy  leagues  farther  west,  the  continent  was 
still  undiscovered. 

Great  Britain,  having  become  a  Protestant  power, 
had  no  respect  for  the  title  of  possession  which 
rested  upon  the  Pope's  bull,  and  France  lost  respect 
for  it  as  soon  as  she  was  on  hostile  terms  with  Spain. 
When  the  Netherlands  got  out  of  the  clutches  of 
Spain  and  was  at  war  with  her,  she  did  not  care  by 
what  title  possession  was  claimed.  She  had  no  re- 
gard for  it  on  any  ground.  It  is  remarkable  what  a 
proportion  of  her  vast  domain  Spain  succeeded  in 

71 


72  THE  WEST  INDIES 

holding  until  near  the  present  century,  Portugal 
made  good  its  claim  to  Brazil,  and  at  the  beginning 
of  the  colonising  period  England,  France,  and  Hol- 
land each  got  a  small  foothold  at  Guiana;  but  other- 
wise she  kept  all  South  America  until  her  colonies 
one  by  one  revolted  and  gained  their  independence. 
Save  for  a  little  British  spot  at  Honduras,  she  kept 
Central  America  and  Mexico  into  the  present  cen- 
tury, when  Mexico  included  Texas  and  California 
and  all  between.  She  also  had,  as  the  result  of  De 
Soto's  explorations,  Florida,  extending  indefinitely 
westward  from  the  peninsula,  and  at  one  time 
Louisiana,  when  it  stretched  all  the  way  up  the 
Mississippi   valley   and    over    to    the    Pacific   coast 

where  rolls  the  Oregon," 

Near  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  Sir  Richard 
Grenville  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  and  a  little  later 
Captain  John  Smith  and  others,  in  their  hunt  for 
eligible  sites  for  colonies,  paid  special  attention  for 
a  while  to  the  Orinoco  region,  lured  partly  by  the 
enticing  legends  of  El  Dorado.  In  their  wanderings 
from  South  to  North  America,  where  they  founded 
the  Virginia  colony,  they  were  wont  to  pause 
among  the  Caribbees,  and  they  did  not  forget  the 
goodly  prospect  for  colonising  hereabouts  for  such 
adventurous  spirits  as  had  no  respect  for  the  Spanish 
title  of  possession  or  fear  of  the  native  inhabitants. 
For  a  time,  however,  English  colonisers  were  kept 
busy  in  Guiana  and  on  the  North  American  coast  at 
Virginia  and  New  England.  The  French  had  made 
a  beginning  still  farther  north  in  Canada  and  had 
been  feeding  an  appetite  for  possessions  in  newly 


ENGLISH,  FRENCH,  AND  DUTCH  COLONISERS     73 

discovered  lands.  They  grew  covetous  of  a  share 
in  the  tropical  islands  with  whose  charms  the  cor- 
sairs had  already  made  intimate  acquaintance.  The 
Netherlands  had  begun  operations  with  a  trading 
company,  which  first  took  possession  where  now 
flourishes  the  goodly  city  of  New  York;  and  Dutch 
smugglers  had  long  been  prowling  about  the  Spanish 
islands  with  a  special  headquarters  in  the  island  of 
St.  Eustatius,  from  which  they  were  driven  only  to 
return.  A  so-called  admiral  of  the  Dutch  took  San 
Juan  de  Puerto  Rico  in  161 5,  but  was  killed  for  his 
pains  and  no  advantage  came  of  it.  But  in  1621  the 
Dutch  West  India  Company  was  incorporated,  which 
had  serious  colonising  as  well  as  trading  purposes. 

The  Spanish  colonies  had  been  confined  virtually 
to  the  Greater  Antilles.  A  few  settlers  had  taken 
possession  of  the  islands  adjacent  to  the  Spanish 
Main,  including  Trinidad  and  Curasao,  or  Querisao, 
as  it  is  quaintly  called  in  Dampier's  Voyages.  They 
were  practically  left  undisturbed  in  Trinidad  until 
near  the  close  of  the  last  century,  save  for  the  un- 
ceremonious call  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  two  hundred 
years  before.  The  Dutch,  whose  title  was  altogether 
one  of  conquest,  acquired  during  the  war  between 
Spain  and  the  Netherlands,  captured  Curagao  and 
its  neighbours  Buen  Aire  and  Aruba  in  1634,  and 
slowly  colonised  them.  Spain  retained  the  rest  of 
what  she  called  the  "  Sotavento,"  or  Leeward,  group 
of  islands,  the  finest  of  which  was  Margarita,  until 
they  went  with  Venezuela  upon  the  achievement  of 
her  independence. 

The  first  English  settlement  in  the  West  Indies 


74  THE   WEST  IX DIES 

was  made  in  1624  by  Sir  Thomas  Warner  and  his 
associates,  who  were  an  offshoot  of  Raleigh's  "  Com- 
pany of  Noblemen  and  Gentlemen  of  England  for 
the  Plantation  of  Guiana."  They  first  took  posses- 
sion of  the  island  of  St.  Christopher,  extending  their 
claim  to  Nieves,  which  was  close  by,  and  which  was 
Anglicised  into  Nevis.  At  this  time  there  was  one 
of  those  French  adventurers  generally  called  cor- 
sairs, by  the  name  of  Esnambuc,  prowling  around ; 
and  in  a  tussle  with  a  Spanish  galleon  which  he  had 
failed  to  capture,  his  vessel  was  crippled,  and  he 
put  in  at  St.  Christopher  for  repairs.  The  English 
and  French  were  then  on  friendly  terms,  and  as 
Warner  was  having  a  hard  time  with  the  intractable 
natives,  he  struck  a  bargain  with  Esnambuc  for  a 
combination  against  the  Caribs  and  an  equitable 
division  of  the  island.  This  was  in  1625.  They 
had  a  hard  struggle  with  the  pagans,  who  persisted 
in  trying  to  hold  their  own,  but  finally  succeeded  in 
quelling,  killing,  and  driving  them  out.  In  1629, 
the  Spanish  from  Hispaniola,  who  regarded  this  as 
an  intrusion  upon  their  neglected  preserves,  made 
an  unexpected  visit  and  broke  up  the  settlements, 
driving  the  colonists  away.  St.  Christopher  was 
always  called  the  "  Mother  Colony  "  by  the  English 
and  the  "  Mere  d'Antilles  "  by  the  French;  but 
when  colonists  returned  after  the  first  expulsion, 
England  and  France  were  having  a  quarrel,  and 
each  claimed  exclusive  possession.  The  island 
passed  from  one  to  the  other  several  times,  and 
was  finally  confirmed  to  Great  Britain. 

The  French  refugees  of  1629  from  St.  Kitt's,  as  it 


ENGLISH,  FRENCH,  A  VP   DUTCH  COLONISERS     75 

came  irreverently  to  be  called,  joined  with  other 
outcasts  and  adventurers  to  seize  upon  the  small 
island  of  Tortuga  near  the  north-western  extremity 
of  Haiti,  and  were  the  means  of  finally  wresting  all 
the  western  part  of  Hispaniola  from  Spain.  Sir 
Thomas  Warner's  colonists,  who  were  recruited  from 
time  to  time,  had  strayed  over  to  Barbuda  in  1628, 
and  some  who  were  associated  with  him  were  among 
the  settlers  of  Barbados  even  earlier,  though  the 
main  colony  there  came  out  from  England  in  1625. 
In  1632,  Warner  took  possession  of  Antigua  and 
Montserrat,  but  a  formidable  rival  was  looming  up. 
After  the  death  of  James  I.,  the  sham  alliance  with 
Spain  was  ended,  and  in  1627  King  Charles  assumed 
to  grant  the  whole  range  of  the  Caribbees  to  the 
Earl  of  Carlisle,  and  this  led  to  conilicting  claims, 
till  the  Cromwell  regime  intervened  to  suspend 
them.  Antigua,  Barbuda,  and  some  of  the  other 
northern  islands  were  uninhabited  when  first  taken, 
and  others  were  the  resort  of  smugglers  and  free- 
booters with  whom  these  waters  were  infested.  The 
infant  colonies  first  planted  here  did  not  thrive,  and 
after  the  Restoration  a  new  settlement  was  made  in 
Antigua  under  Lord  Willoughby,  to  whom  the 
island  was  granted  by  Charles  II.  and  the  Earl  of 
Carlisle.  In  1680,  Barbuda  was  given  to  the 
Codrington  family. 

Dutch  settlers  took  possession  of  St.  Eustatius  in 
1635,  and,  although  it  did  not  escape  attack  in  the 
contentions  which  followed,  that  and  the  neigh- 
bouring island  of  Saba  were  finally  confirmed  in  the 
possession  of  Holland.     Dutch  smugglers  were  the 


76  THE  WEST  INDIES 

first  to  occupy  Tortola,  but  they  were  not  colonists, 
and  were  succeeded  by  some  English  Quakers  who 
held  peaceful  possession,  but  were  ruined  by  eman- 
cipating their  slaves,  St.  Martin  in  1638  was  a 
headquarters  for  French  rovers,  or  corsairs,  but  the 
Dutch  smugglers  divided  its  possession  with  them, 
and  in  1648  an  amicable  division  of  the  island  be- 
tween the  French  and  Dutch  was  effected.  The 
same  year  French  colonists  settled  in  St.  Bartholo- 
mew. All  this  northern  part  of  the  Lesser  An- 
tilles was  sparsely  peopled  and  feebly  held  by  the 
aborigines,  and  after  one  or  two  spasmodic  efforts 
Spain  gave  up  all  attempt  to  exclude  other  nations 
from  them. 

The  Bahamas  in  the  meantime  continued  to  be 
practically  deserted.  English  writers  are  wont  to 
say  that  a  settlement  was  made  at  New  Providence 
in  1629,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  record  that  in  1630 
there  was  formed  "  The  Governor  and  Company  of 
Adventurers  for  the  Plantation  of  the  Island  of 
Providence,  Henrietta,  and  Adjacent  Islands,"  but 
there  is  no  evidence  of  actual  "  planting."  It  has 
also  been  said  that  in  1641  the  settlements  were 
broken  up  by  jealous  Spaniards  from  Cuba,  and  that 
they  were  re-established  in  1666,  to  be  again  dis- 
persed in  1703  by  Spanish  violence,  after  which  the 
islands  were  left  a  prey  to  the  elements  and  the 
buccaneers  for  three  quarters  of  a  century.  The  fact 
seems  to  be  that  the  so-called  settlements  were,  for 
the  most  part,  nests  of  pirates  and  wreckers  who 
lay  in  wait  for  Spanish  trading  vessels,  which,  to 
avoid  the  perils  of  the  Caribbean  waters,  had  begun 


ENGLISH,  FRENCH,  AND  DUTCH  COLONISERS     77 

to  take  the  Bahama  channels  on  their  way  from 
Mexico  and  Cuba.  New  Providence  had,  indeed, 
been  granted  to  Lord  Albemarle  and  others  in  1680 
as  a  colony,  the  "  lords  proprietors"  having  the 
right  to  appoint  a  governor  and  manage  all  the 
affairs  of  the  island.  Some  settlers  were  brought 
over  and  attempts  were  made  to  develop  the  lonely 
colony  before  the  Spanish  and  French  attack  of 
1703,  which  resulted  in  the  demolition  of  the  puny 
defences  of  Nassau  and  the  transportation  of  the 
governor  and  most  of  his  subjects  to  Havana.  The 
pirates  and  wreckers  then  had  the  Bahamas  pretty 
much  to  themselves  until  our  revolutionary  war. 

The  greatest  resistance  to  colonising  efforts  came 
from  the  native  population  in  the  lower  Caribbees. 
Two  French  adventurers,  by  the  name  of  L'Olive 
and  Duplessis,  landed  upon  Guadeloupe  in  1635 
with  a  force  of  labourers,  but  they  were  unable  to 
hold  possession.  Four  chartered  companies  were 
ruined  in  the  effort  to  colonise  the  island,  and  finally 
the  surviving  Caribs  were  removed  to  Dominica  and 
St.  Vincent.  The  English  had  attempted  to  take 
possession  of  Dominica  as  far  back  as  1627,  but  had 
been  driven  off,  and  the  natives  were  left  practically 
undisturbed  for  a  century  or  more. 

The  Caribs  had  showed  themselves  so  formidable 
that  no  attempt  Avas  made  to  occupy  Martinique 
until  1665,  although  Esnambuc  had  taken  posses- 
sion in  the  name  of  France  thirty  years  before.  The 
formal  adoption  of  the  colony  occurred  in  1675,  but 
before  much  progress  could  be  made  the  natives  had 
to  be  transported.     Killing  them  proved  to  be  too 


78  THE   WEST  INDIES 

hazardous  an  undertaking.  An  English  settlement 
was  made  on  St.  Lucia  as  early  as  1639,  but  it  had 
a  hard  struggle  to  keep  alive  until  the  period  of  con- 
tention between  the  French  and  English  for  the 
possession  of  this  whole  group  of  islands.  St.  Vin- 
cent, like  Dominica,  was  left  in  possession  of  the 
aborigines  by  agreement,  until,  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  both  French  and  English  settlers  crowded 
in,  and  the  island  became  subject  to  the  long  con- 
tention of  France  and  Great  Britain  in  their  wars. 
Grenada  and  the  Grenadines  were  first  settled  by  the 
French,  who  with  their  negro  slaves  undertook  to 
massacre  or  drive  out  the  natives.  They  succeeded 
in  holding  the  principal  island. 

Barbados  was  somewhat  out  of  range  of  the  rivalry 
for  possession  between  the  English  and  French.  In 
fact,  it  was  not  among  the  Spanish  discoveries.  An 
English  vessel,  named  the  Olive  Blossom,  made  a 
landing  there  in  1605  while  on  the  way  to  Surinam, 
and  took  possession  for  the  British  crown.  Colo- 
nists were  brought  out  in  1625,  and  the  English  have 
been  in  practically  undisturbed  possession  ever 
since.  Tobago,  which  lies  off  Trinidad,  and  is 
virtually  appurtenant  to  it,  was  scarcely  occupied 
by  the  Spanish,  though  nominally  in  their  posses- 
sion. The  British  flag  was  raised  over  it  in  1580, 
when  the  first  schemes  of  colonisation  in  South 
America  were  on  foot,  but  the  Dutch  and  French 
successively  took  possession  afterwards.  No  per- 
manent settlement  was  made  there  for  a  long  time 
by  any  nationality,  and  in  the  final  composition  of 
the  quarrels  it  was  kept  by  Great  Britain.     As  al- 


ENGLISH,  FRENCH,  AND  DUTCH  COLONISERS     79 

ready  stated,  Trinidad,  being  really  an  appendage 
of  the  South  American  continent,  was  settled  by 
Spaniards  at  an  early  period,  but  their  little  colony 
was  confined  to  the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  and 
the  aborigines  were  long  permitted  to  roam  over  the 
rest  of  the  island.  The  latter  appear  to  have  been 
comparatively  late  comers  from  the  mainland,  and 
were  divided  between  Caribs  and  Arawaks,  with  a 
preponderance  of  the  latter. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  case  of  colonising  in 
the  West  Indies  during  the  seventeenth  century  is 
that  which  deprived  Spain  of  the  magnificent  island 
of  Jamaica,  third  in  size  and  by  nature  one  of  the 
richest  of  the  Greater  Antilles.  Spain's  enlightened 
policy  in  dealing  with  its  natural  resources  and  its 
native  inhabitants  had  by  the  middle  of  that  century 
almost  reduced  it  to  a  "  howling  wilderness,"  peo- 
pled by  wild  cattle,  hogs,  and  dogs,  and  overgrown 
with  the  luxuriance  of  tropical  vegetation  and  ani- 
mal life.  The  human  inhabitants  numbered  barely 
3000,  half  of  whom  were  negro  slaves,  and  all  of 
whom  had  lapsed  into  hopeless  laziness  amidst  the 
decay  of  the  early  settlement.  In  1655,  Cromwell, 
in  the  height  of  his  power,  sent  a  fleet  under  Ad- 
mirals Penn  and  Venables  to  attack  Spain  in  her 
island  colonies,  and  being  repulsed  from  Hispaniola, 
they  took  easy  possession  of  Jamaica.  Admiral 
Penn,  by  the  way,  who  was  no  better  than  the  other 
piratical  sea-dogs  of  his  time,  was  the  father  of  the 
Quaker  coloniser  of  Pennsylvania,  who  got  vast 
credit  for  benevolence  because  he  shrewdly  paid  the 
Indians  a  trifling  fraction  of  its  value  for  their  land. 


8o  THE  WEST  INDIES 

instead  of  bringing  trouble  upon  his  infant  colony 
by  seizing  possession  of  it. 

When  Jamaica  was  taken  in  1655,  the  Spanish 
residents  had  their  choice  of  submitting  to  English 
rule  or  leaving  the  island,  and  a  considerable  part  of 
them  fled  to  Cuba,  while  most  of  the  negroes  took 
to  the  mountains.  "  English  colonists"  were  sent 
out  the  next  year,  and  they  were  mostly  a  pictur- 
esque lot  of  reprobates  from  the  coasts  of  Scotland 
and  Ireland,  and  offscourings  of  the  land,  mingled 
with  some  adventurous  Jews,  bent  upon  exploiting 
the  wealth  of  the  new  domain.  The  Lord  Protector 
gave  encouragement  by  proclaiming  that  all  goods 
sent  to  Jamaica  should  be  landed  free  of  duty  for 
seven  years,  and  that  the  products  of  the  colony 
should  be  subject  to  no  tax  for  ten  years.  Things 
started  with  a  veritable  "  boom,"  but  the  interesting 
results  belong  more  properly  to  a  separate  account 
of  Jamaica  later  in  our  volume. 

What  are  called  the  Danish  West  Indies  were 
never  colonised  in  any  proper  sense  of  the  word. 
St.  Thomas  was  one  of  the  early  resorts  of  the  rovers 
and  pirates,  and  came  into  the  possession  of  a  trading 
company  of  which  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  was 
the  director.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  King  of 
Denmark,  and  this  was  long  a  neutral  trading  point 
and  grew  rich  out  of  the  plunder  of  the  other  islands. 
Santa  Cruz  and  St.  John,  which  latter  was  never  of 
much  importance,  were  acquired  by  purchase. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

BUCCANEERS,  FREEBOOTERS,  AND  MAROONS 

FOR  a  century  and  more  the  Spanish  colony  on 
Hispaniola  was  confined  to  the  eastern  part  of 
the  island  about  Santo  Domingo;  and  scattered 
remnants  of  the  natives  hunted  wild  cattle  and  hogs 
near  the  coasts  in  the  western  part.  These  hunters 
had  a  mode  of  preserving  flesh  peculiar  to  them- 
selves, by  drying  and  smoking  it  over  a  fire  of  green 
branches  and  leaves.'  Some  writers  say  that  the 
beef  so  prepared  by  fire  was  called  "  boucan " ; 
others  say  that  the  places  used  for  drying  and  smok- 
ing the  flesh  were  "  boucans."  P^re  Labat,  a 
French  priest,  who  lived  for  some  time  in  the  Carib- 
bees  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  wrote  a  big  book  about  them,  says  that  "  bou- 
can "  was  the  Carib  word  for  the  cashew  nut,  which 
had  to  be  roasted  before  it  was  edible.  If  this  is  so, 
the  word  was  probably  first  applied  to  the  edible 
product  of  the  flesh-smoking  process,  though  it  may 
have  been  extended  to  the  open-air  smoke-houses 
afterwards.  Hovv'ever  that  may  be,  when  the  trade 
was  taken  up  by  vagrant  sailors  and  adventurers  of 

81 


82  THE  WEST  INDIES 

European  origin,  the  French  made  the  verb  "  bouca- 
ner  "  to  apply  to  the  process,  and  "  boucanier  "  to 
designate  those  engaged  in  the  business.  This  latter 
word  became  buccaneer  in  English. 

In  the  time  of  the  first  roving  traders  and  priva- 
teers, they  were  wont  to  get  part  of  their  supplies 
from  the  natives  on  shore,  including  this  same  viand 
"  boucan,"  and  gradually  their  sailors  engaged  in 
hunting  and  "  boucanning  "  for  themselves,  and  some 
of  them  remained  on  shore  permanently  for  the  pur- 
pose. Desperadoes  and  adventurers  of  various 
nationalities  gathered  unto  them ;  and  they  were 
joined  by  refugees  from  St.  Kitt's  when  the  settle- 
ments there  were  broken  up,  "and  with  them  took 
possession  of  the  small  island  of  Tortuga  off  the 
north-western  peninsula  of  Haiti  as  a  headquarters 
of  their  own.  They  continued  to  hunt  on  the  large 
island,  but  made  Tortuga  a  centre  of  supply  and  of 
trade  with  the  rovers  and  smugglers.  In  1638,  a 
Spanish  force  made  a  descent  upon  the  small  island 
in  the  absence  of  the  hunters  and  massacred  every- 
body that  they  found  there.  The  hunters  returned 
to  the  number  of  about  three  hundred,  recruited 
their  force  from  material  of  a  still  more  desperate 
character,  if  possible,  and  took  to  making  reprisals 
upon  Spanish  traders  and  depredations  upon  un- 
guarded Spanish  settlements.  In  a  few  years  they 
got  together  a  considerable  fleet  of  vessels  and  made 
this  marine  marauding  their  principal  business. 

The  original"  boucaniers  "  were  a  wild  and  pictur- 
esque  gang.  To  the  waist  they  were  generally 
clothed  in  a  sunburnt  and  weather-beaten  skin,  and 


BUCCANEERS,  FREEBOOTERS,  AND  MAROONS     83 

they  wore  pantaloons  of  coarse  linen,  dyed  and 
stiffened  with  the  blood  of  bulls  and  pigs,  and  held 
up  by  a  belt  of  rawhide  stuck  full  of  deadly  knives. 
Their  apparel  terminated  with  pig-skin  boots  and 
no  stockings,  and  they  carried  a  tong-barrelled  fire- 
lock loaded  with  ounce  balls  of  lead.  They  were 
animated  by  a  common  hatred  of  the  Spaniard, 
which  in  their  eyes  justified  any  attack  upon  his 
person  or  property,  and  by  a  wild  sort  of  attach- 
ment to  each  other  in  their  perilous  life,  which  led 
to  their  being  known  as  the  "  Brethren  of  the 
Coast."  When  the  Spaniards  drove  them  into  the 
career  of  marauders  upon  the  sea,  the  word  "  buc- 
caneer "  took  on  a  new  meaning,  though  they  were 
also  known  as  freebooters.  This  was  a  mongrel 
English  word,  "  buiten  "  being  Dutch  and  "  bueten  " 
German  for  "  plunder,"  though  the  English  language 
had  and  still  has  the  noun  "  booty."  Of  this  word 
"  freebooter  "  the  French  made  "  fribustier,"  with  the 
"  s"  silent,  after  the  manner  of  French  spelling  and 
pronunciation  in  those  times,  and  then  softened  it 
to  "  flibustier,  "which  the  Spanish  modified  into  "  fili- 
bustero. "  So  we  finally  got  the  word  back  with  a  new 
meaning  and  a  special  application  as  "  filibuster." 

France  took  possession  of  Tortuga  in  1641,  and 
made  an  attempt  upon  Hispaniola  which  was  re- 
pulsed. She  had  the  help  and  sympathy  of  the 
buccaneers,  but  Spain  regained  the  small  island  in 
1654,  and  these  disturbances  led  them  to  take  to  the 
English  side  in  the  attack  on  Jamaica,  and  after  its 
capture  by  Cromwell's  fleet  they  established  their 
headquarters   at    Port   Royal  and   entered   upon  a 


84  THE   WEST  INDIES 

flourishing  career.  They  owed  their  success  for  a 
long  time  to  the  fact  that  their  attacks  were  made 
upon  Spanish  trade  and  Spanish  settlements,  and 
they  had  the  connivance,  if  not  the  countenance,  of 
the  English  and  French  authorities.  They  some- 
times even  carried  letters  of  marque. 

While  the  buccaneers'  headquarters  were  still  on 
Tortuga,  with  their  piratical  fleet  they  maintained 
outposts  in  the  Virgin  Islands,  in  the  Southern 
Bahamas,  and  in  the  Bay  of  Campeachy,  where  they 
waylaid  Spanish  traders  and  watched  for  the  swag- 
bellied  galleons  from  the  treasure  cities  of  Mexico 
and  "  the  Main,"  and  where  they  often  hid  their 
booty  in  caves.  Their  first  great  leader  was  a 
Frenchman  named  Montbar,  whom  they  called 
Pierre  le  Grand,  or  Peter  the  Great.  It  is  related 
of  him  that  while  lying  off  the  Caicos  for  vessels 
passing  the  old  Bahama  Channel,  he  captured  the 
ship  of  a  Spanish  vice-admiral.  Another  French- 
man, a  native  of  Sables  d'Olonne,  and  known  as 
Francois  I'Olonnois,  who  had  come  out  to  the 
West  Indies  as  a  common  sailor,  became  a  formid- 
able commander  of  buccaneers.  He  captured  a 
Spanish  frigate  which  was  sent  from  Havana  to  put 
down  the  freebooters,  with  a  negro  executioner  on 
board  who  was  to  hang  to  the  yard-arm  every  man 
caught ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  struck  off  the  heads 
of  the  Spanish  crew,  ranged  in  a  row  convenient  for 
the  purpose,  licking  his  sword  after  each  blow.  But 
the  chief  exploits  of  L'Olonnois,  or  Lolonois,  as  he 
is  commonly  called,  were  plundering  settlements  on 
the  coast,  especially  the  cities  of  the  mainland. 


BUCCANEERS,  FREEBOOTERS,  AND  MAROONS     85 

When  the  headquarters  of  the  buccaneers  were 
established  in  Jamaica,  Captain  Henry  Morgan,  a 
Welshman  by  birth,  rose  to  be  a  famous  leader 
among  them,  and  his  depredations  were  also  com- 
mitted chiefly  on  the  mainland,  though  his  plunder 
was  brought  to  Port  Royal,  which  became  the  resort 
of  desperate  and  vicious  characters  and  grew  rich 
and  wicked  from  the  profits  of  freebooting.  These 
profits  were  gathered  mostly  from  attacks  upon 
Cartagena,  Porto  Bello,  and  other  cities  of  the 
Spanish  Main,  which  were  either  sacked  or  forced 
to  pay  heavy  ransom.  Spanish  trade  on  the  water 
had  been  already  ruined,  and  attacks  upon  it  had  be- 
come unprofitable.  The  days  had  gone  by  when 
the  rakish  craft  of  the  buccaneer  could  lurk  among 
the  islands  and  conceal  themselves  in  shady  coves, 
to  sally  forth  in  the  moonlight  and  seize  a  passing 
galleon  or  a  Spanish  fighting  vessel,  cutting  the 
throats  of  captain  and  crew  and  carrying  bags  and 
buckets  of  treasure  to   Tortuga  and  St.  Thomas. 

The  end  of  hostilities  between  England  and  Spain 
about  1670  virtually  put  a  stop  to  legalised  or  toler- 
ated piracy  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  after  Morgan's 
great  exploit  of  burning  the  city  of  Panama  in  167 1, 
buccaneering  took  to  the  Pacific,  ravaged  the  west 
coast  of  South  America,  and  wandered  over  seas, 
though  much  of  the  plunder  was  still  brought  to 
Jamaica  by  way  of  Cape  Horn,  and  a  general  ren- 
dezvous was  kept  up  among  the  islands.  Morgan 
finally  "  squared  himself  "  with  the  authorities,  and 
settled  down  at  Port  Royal.  He  was  twice  Acting 
Governor  of  Jamaica,  was  knighted  by  Charles  II., 


86  THE   WEST  INDIES 

and  died  rich  and  more  or  less  honoured,  after  the 
manner  of  those  days.  One  of  the  last  of  the  noto- 
rious organisers  of  buccaneering  expeditions  in  the 
West  Indies  was  a  ferocious  Fleming,  named  Van 
Home,  who  kept  his  headquarters  on  Tortuga  to  the 
last.  His  most  conspicuous  exploit  was  an  attack 
upon  Vera  Cruz,  whither  he  proceeded  with  six 
vessels  and  1200  men,  taking  possession  of  the  town, 
plundering  the  houses,  and  demanding  a  heavy  ran- 
som to  save  the  place  from  destruction.  While  he 
was  waiting  for  this,  a  Spanish  fleet  of  seventeen 
vessels  sailed  into  the  harbour,  but  Van  Home 
escaped  with  the  loot  already  taken. 

Buccaneering,  which  had  its  origin  in  the  West 
Indies  and  spread  far  and  wide,  was  practically  sup- 
pressed by  the  peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697,  which 
brought  an  end  to  hostilities  between  France  and 
Spain,  as  those  between  England  and  Spain  had 
ended  some  years  before.  In  the  interval,  France 
and  England  had  got  on  bad  terms,  and  even  their 
buccaneers  and  pirates  fell  out  with  each  other, 
which  was  ruinous  to  their  enterprise.  The  century 
ended  with  Spanish  trade  in  the  West  Indies  well- 
nigh  killed  and  the  buccaneers  dying  out  for  lack  of 
countenance  and  employment,  but  they  were  suc- 
ceeded by  out-and-out  pirates  in  the  next  century, 
enemies  not  of  Spain  especially,  but  of  mankind, 
who  preyed  upon  commerce  indiscriminately  on  all 
seas.  Though  piracy  was  by  no  means  a  product  of 
the  West  Indies  and  was  only  incidental  to  their 
later  history,  it  continued  to  have  some  peculiar  as- 
pects there.     During  the  wars  in  which  England, 


BUCCANEERS,  FREEBOOTERS,  AND  MAROONS     8/ 

France,  Holland,  and  Spain  were  engaged,  with 
more  or  less  shifting  of  the  belligerent  parties,  it 
was  mixed  with  privateering  in  many  cases. 

Jacques  Cassard,  the  famous  French  corsair  who 
came  out  in  171 2,  was  furnished  with  a  fleet  by  the 
merchants  of  Marseilles,  and  directed  his  operations 
against  the  Dutch,  but  these  were  plundering  opera- 
tions purely.  He  captured  St.  Eustatius  and  ex- 
acted a  large  ransom  from  it.  He  proceeded  upon 
a  like  enterprise  to  Curasao,  and  though  he  encoun- 
tered vigorous  resistance  he  succeeded  in  collecting 
600,000  louis  d'or. 

But  perhaps  the  most  picturesque  of  West  Indian 
pirates  was  the  Englishman,  Edward  Teach,  who  was 
known  as"  Blackbeard."  Much  romance  of  doubt- 
ful authenticity  has  been  mixed  up  with  his  maraud- 
ing career,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  was  a  mari- 
ner who  got  his  training  as  a  privateer  when  there 
was  war  with  Spain,  and  turned  it  to  account  in  rank 
piracy,  preying  as  freely  upon  English  commerce  as 
any  other.  In  fact,  after  lurking  off  Barbados  and 
the  Caribbees  and  prowling  among  the  Bahamas, 
picking  up  "  prizes  "  now  and  then,  he  carried  on  his 
operations  boldly  off  the  Carolina  coast  and  about  the 
Bermudas,  and  it  was  the  Governor  of  Virginia  who 
finally  secured  his  capture  by  offering  a  reward  "  for 
apprehending  or  killing  pirates,"  and  putting  a  spe- 
cially liberal  price  upon  Blackbeard's  head.  The 
head  was  finally  obtained  after  a  sharp  tussle  by 
one  Lieutenant  Maynard  and  his  men,  and  taken  to 
Bath  Town  "  hanging  at  the  boltsprit  end."  An 
interesting  head  it  must  have  been,  according  to  an 


88  THE   WEST  INDIES 

old  description  of  the  doughty  pirate,  whose  black 
beard  is  said  to  have  covered  his  whole  face  and 
"  frightened  America  more  than  any  comet  that  has 
appeared  there  a  long  time."  This  beard,  quoth 
the  quaint  writer  of  the  description,  was 

"  of  an  extravagant  length  ;  as  to  breadth  it  came  up  to 
his  eyes.  He  was  accustomed  to  twist  it  with  ribbons, 
in  small  tails,  after  the  manner  of  our  Ramilie  wigs,  and 
turn  them  about  his  ears.  In  time  of  action  he  wore  a 
sling  over  his  shoulders,  v.'ith  three  brace  of  pistols 
hanging  in  holsters  like  bandaliers,  and  stuck  lighted 
matches  under  his  hat,  which,  appearing  on  each  side  of 
his  face,  his  eyes  naturally  looking  fierce  and  wild,  made 
him  altogether  such  a  figure  that  imagination  cannot 
form  an  idea  of  a  fury  from  hell  to  look  more  frightful." 

Stories  of  his  reckless  bravery  and  wild  brutality 
and  debauchery  are  as  picturesque  and  perhaps  as 
authentic  as  this  description ;  and  this  delectable 
monster  is  said  to  have  married  fourteen  or  more 
wives  at  different  times  and  places,  some  of  them 
without  their  consent,  to  be  sure. 

Another  enterprising  character  who  early  in  the 
eighteenth  century  captured  cargoes  off  the  Guiana 
coast,  Barbados,  and  the  Caribbees,  was  Captain 
Bartholomew  Roberts.  He  even  made  seizures  in 
the  very  ports  of  Martinique  and  Dominica.  Dutch 
vessels  were  his  special  prey,  but  he  finally  trans- 
ferred his  activity  to  the  eastern  hemisphere.  Cer- 
tain regulations  of  the  pirating  business  attributed 
to  Roberts  have  been  pubHshed.  Among  others 
relating  to  the  conduct  of  crews  were  a  prohibition 


BUCCANEERS,  FREEBOOTERS,  AND  MAROONS     89 

of  gaming  "  at  cards  or  dice  for  money  "  ;  a  require- 
ment that  lights  be  put  out  at  eight  o'clock;  that 
"  pieces,  pistols,  and  cutlass  be  kept  clean  and  fit 
for  service";  "no  boy  or  woman  to  be  allowed 
amongst  them  ";  deserting  the  ship  or  quarters  in 
battle  to  be  punished  by  death  or  marooning,  and 
so  on. 

The  more  famous  Captain  Kidd  began  his  career 
with  privateering  in  the  West  Indies,  and  it  was 
Lord  Bellamont,  Governor  of  Barbados,  who  secured 
his  commission  as  commander  of  the  Adventure,  to 
put  down  pirates.  As  is  well  known,  he  turned 
pirate  himself,  but  his  exploits  in  that  character 
were  performed  on  the  other  side  of  the  world. 

Piracy  continued  all  through  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury and  into  the  present  one  on  the  pathways  of 
commerce  between  the  Old  World  and  the  New,  and 
between  Europe  and  the  East,  affecting  the  West 
Indian  trade  incidentally  and  having  constant  lurk- 
ing-places among  the  islands. 

Passing  reference  has  been  made  to  marooning  as 
a  penalty  on  board  pirate  ships,  which  reminds  us 
to  go  back  to  another  peculiar  incident  in  West 
Indian  experience.  The  word  "  maroon  "  has  been 
variously  explained.  Almost  as  soon  as  negroes 
were  introduced  into  the  islands  and  upon  the  Span- 
ish Main  as  slaves,  they  were  so  inhumanly  treated 
that  the  most  daring  of  them  ran  away  and  estab- 
lished wild  communities  of  their  own  in  the  woods 
and  mountains.  These  came  to  be  called  cimar- 
rons,  which  seems  to  have  meant  mountain-dwellers, 
though  restricted   in  its  application  to  these  fugi- 


90  THE   WEST  INDIES 

tives.  In  the  uncertain  orthography  of  the  time  the 
English  spelled  the  word  "  simeron,"  "  symaron," 
and  "  simaran,"  and  runaway  negroes  are  spoken  of 
by  this  term  in  the  description  of  Drake's  landing 
at  Darien. 

It  is  apparently  a  modification  of  this  term  that 
was  applied  to  the  negro  slaves  who  fled  to  the 
woods  when  the  English  first  took  possession  of 
Jamaica,  for  they  were  called  maroons  from  the  time 
they  first  established  themselves  as  a  dangerous  ele- 
ment in  the  population  of  the  island.  As  Jamaica 
came  to  be  a  great  centre  of  the  slave  trade  and  her 
growing  plantations  were  worked  almost  exclusively 
by  slave  labour  under  brutal  task-masters,  fugitives 
multiplied  and  the  community  of  maroons  became 
formidable  enough  to  produce  serious  trouble,  as  we 
shall  see  when  considering  the  history  of  Jamaica 
more  in  detail. 

The  maroons  being  in  effect  outcasts,  a  verb  seems 
to  have  been  made  of  the  word  to  express  the  pro- 
cess of  casting  out.  It  was  first  applied  to  the 
practice  of  the  buccaneers  or  the  pirates  in  getting 
rid  of  the  captives  taken  by  them  when  they  plun- 
dered towns,  by  setting  them  ashore  on  some  unin- 
habited island  and  leaving  them  to  their  fate.  This 
was  an  alternative  to  killing  them,  and  there  was 
occasionally  a  pirate  who  had  a  distaste  for  whole- 
sale slaughter  when  he  did  not  consider  it  necessary. 
Marooning  was  also  adopted  as  an  alternative  to 
death  in  punishing  sailors  for  mutiny  or  other 
offences  on  board  ship,  not  adequately  requited  by 
knocking  down  with  a  marlinspike  or  flogging  with 


BUCCANEERS,  FREEBOOTERS,  AND  MAROONS     9I 

a  rope's  end.  By  a  peculiarity  of  piratical  etymol- 
ogy the  victim  of  this  process  and  not  its  perpetrator 
was  called  a  marooner.  The  term  has  come  to  be 
applied  to  anybody  left  on  a  lonely  island  in  any 
part  of  the  world,  and  in  the  South  to  picnic  parties, 
who  are  said  to  go  marooning. 


CHAPTER  IX 


FIGHTING   FOR   POSSESSION 


EARLY  in  the  seventeenth  century  Spain's  ex- 
clusive right  to  possession  in  the  West  Indies 
came  to  be  seriously  contested;  by  1658  the  Pope 
formally  gave  it  up,  and  in  1670  it  was  abandoned 
by  Spain  herself.  For  nearly  two  centuries  there 
was  almost  continuous  war  in  which  one  and  another 
of  the  colonising  powers  were  engaged,  and  there 
were  frequent  contests  for  the  possession  of  islands, 
especially  those  of  the  Lesser  Antilles.  As  we  have 
already  seen,  some  of  the  original  colonies  were 
established  by  conquest. 

The  nine  years'  truce  ended  in  161 8,  and  hostili- 
ties were  renewed  between  Spain  and  the  Nether- 
lands. England  made  a  treaty  with  the  latter 
power  in  1625  which  brought  her  into  collision  with 
Spain  afresh.  It  was  in  1629  that  the  Spanish  fleet 
made  the  attack  upon  St.  Christopher  and  drove  out 
both  English  and  French  settlers,  and  in  1632  that 
the  Dutch  took  Tobago  and  in  1634  Curagao.  After 
the  French  took  nominal  possession  of  Guadeloupe, 
Dominica,  and  Martinique  in   1635,  France  was  at 

92 


FIGHTING  FOR  POSSESSION  93 

war  with  Spain,  which  had  previously  made  peace 
with  England.  In  1638  the  Spanish  made  a  descent 
upon  St.  Martin,  which  was  jointly  occupied  by  the 
French  and  Dutch,  and  took  forcible  possession, 
but  it  was  afterwards  recovered  and  the  formal  divi- 
sion of  the  island  between  Dutch  and  French  was 
made  in  1648.  Although  Spain  and  England  were 
nominally  at  peace  in  1638,  an  English  expedition 
attacked  and  plundered  the  town  of  Santiago  de  la 
Vega  in  Jamaica,  and  in  retaliation  a  Spanish  fleet 
from  Havana  cleared  out  the  infant  settlement  at 
New  Providence  in  the  Bahamas. 

During  the  Commonwealth  time  the  royalist  senti- 
ment was  strong  in  the  British  West  Indies,  and 
there  was  almost  a  revolt  under  Governor  Wil- 
loughby  in  Barbados;  but  a  fleet  came  out  with 
Admiral  Ayscue  and  settled  the  trouble,  incident- 
ally capturing  some  Dutch  vessels  on  the  way. 
Cromwell  adopted  a  vigorous  policy  in  dealing  with 
the  pretensions  of  Spain,  and  it  was  at  this  time  that 
the  fleet  was  sent  against  Hispaniola  and  com- 
promised by  capturing  Jamaica,  which  Spain  tried 
in  vain  to  recover  in  1658.  There  was  a  treaty  of 
peace  between  France  and  Spain  in  1660,  and  the 
restoration  of  Charles  II.  also  brought  peace  between 
England  and  France;  but  in  1665  England  fell  out 
with  the  Dutch,  who  were  joined  the  next  year  by 
France.  Then  the  English  and  French  in  St.  Kitt's 
took  to  fighting.  The  French  got  the  upper  hand 
and  drove  the  EngHsh  out,  but  a  fleet  came  up  from 
Barbados  and  reversed  the  process.  At  the  same 
time  the  French  captured  Antigua  and  Montserrat, 


94  THE   WEST  INDIES 

but  by  the  treaty  of  Breda  in  1667  they  were  re- 
stored to  England,  and  the  old  division  of  St.  Kitt's 
was  re-established.  Trouble  kept  up  for  some  years 
with  privateering  and  depredations  upon  the  thriving 
trade  of  the  Dutch,  but  no  further  changes  of  pos- 
session among  the  islands  took  place  until  the  war 
between  France  and  Holland  in  1688,  when  the  ac- 
cession of  William  of  Orange  brought  England  into 
the  contest  on  the  Dutch  side.  The  French  again 
drove  the  English  out  of  St.  Kitt's  and  seized  St. 
Eustatius,  while  the  English  made  unsuccessful  at- 
tacks upon  Guadeloupe.  The  peace  of  Ryswick, 
1697,  restored  the  old  condition,  the  Dutch  retaining 
St.  Eustatius  and  the  French  and  English  still  divid- 
ing St.  Christopher. 

From  1702  to  171 5  there  was  a  war,  with  England 
and  Holland  on  one  side  and  France  and  Spain  on 
the  other,  and  much  privateering  and  plundering 
went  on,  but  there  was  no  change  of  territorial  pos- 
session, except  that  the  English  drove  the  French 
out  of  St.  Kitt's  this  time,  and  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  the  island  was  finally  ceded  to  Great  Britain. 
Jacques  Cassard,  the  famous  French  corsair,  in  the 
guise  of  a  patriotic  privateer,  captured  St.  Eustatius 
and  Curacao,  but  only  for  the  purpose  of  extorting 
a  ransom.  There  was  a  fierce  contest  between 
France  and  England  for  the  possession  of  the  Carib- 
bees  during  the  Seven  Years'  War  from  1756  to 
1763.  In  the  meantime,  Spain  and  Holland  had 
been  losing  prestige,  and  were  no  longer  rated  as 
formidable  powers. 

It  was  in  this  contest  between  France  and  Eng- 


FIGHTING  FOR  POSSESSION  95 

land  that  Admiral  Rodney  and  Sir  Samuel  Hood 
first  came  to  the  front  as  British  naval  commanders. 
At  the  beginning,  the  French  were  in  possession  of 
all  the  southern  Caribbees,  leaving  Barbados  and 
Trinidad  out  of  the  category.  The  English  captured 
Guadeloupe  in  1759,  before  the  arrival  of  the  home 
fleet,  and  held  it  till  the  end  of  the  war.  Rodney 
sailed  from  Barbados  for  Martinique  in  January, 
1762,  with  eighteen  ships  of  the  line  and  a  consider- 
able force  of  soldiers.  The  island  capitulated,  and 
the  conquest  was  followed  up  with  that  of  Grenada, 
Dominica,  Tobago,  St.  Vincent,  and  St.  Lucia  in 
succession.  Spain  was  involved  in  the  quarrel  at  the 
time,  and  in  May,  1762,  Admiral  Pococke  laid  siege 
to  Havana,  and  in  a  month  Morro  Castle  was  re- 
duced, and  soon  after  the  Governor-General  of  Cuba 
capitulated,  and  Lord  Albemarle  took  possession 
with  land  forces.  These  naval  victories  contributed 
powerfully  to  the  peace  of  February,  1763.  By  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  Guadeloupe,  Martinique,  and  St. 
Lucia  were  restored  to  France,  and  Cuba  was  left  to 
Spain  in  exchange  for  Florida,  while  Dominica,  St. 
Vincent,  Grenada,  and  Tobago  were  ceded  to  Great 
Britain. 

The  next  contest  for  the  possession  of  islands  in 
the  Lesser  Antilles  came  after  France  had  joined 
the  United  States  in  1778  in  their  struggle  for  inde- 
pendence from  British  power.  The  first  move  was 
the  capture  of  Dominica  by  the  French,  that  island 
lying  conveniently  between  their  two  principal  pos- 
sessions, Guadeloupe  and  Martinique.  The  English 
retaliated  by  seizing  St.   Lucia.     A  fleet  came  out 


96  THE  WEST  INDIES 

from  France,  under  Count  de  Grasse,  who  afterwards 
went  up  the  Atlantic  coast  to  help  the  American 
cause,  and  one  from  England,  under  Admiral  Byron. 
The  French  got  to  work  first  and  took  Grenada  and 
St.  Vincent  and  spread  alarm  among  the  other 
islands.  Rodney,  over  in  England,  was  aroused, 
and  pleaded  for  the  command  in  the  West  Indies. 
He  was  not  politically  in  favour,  but  the  disasters 
finally  induced  the  Government  to  send  him  out  to 
replace  Byron.  But  Spain  had  taken  a  hand  in  the 
conflict,  and  by  way  of  diversion  Rodney  captured 
a  Spanish  squadron  off  Cape  Finisterre  and  another 
off  Cape  St.  Vincent,  and  went  to  the  relief  of  Gib- 
raltar, sending  part  of  his  fleet  into  the  Mediterranean 
before  proceeding  to  western  waters.  It  was  late  in 
March,  1780,  when  he  arrived  off  St.  Lucia,  where 
he  found  a  French  fleet  of  thirty  vessels,  under 
Count  de  Guichen.  Though  his  own  ships  num- 
bered only  seventeen,  he  made  two  attempts  to  en- 
gage the  Frenchman.  He  attributed  his  failure  to 
force  a  fight  to  the  inefficiency  of  his  own  men,  and 
when  De  Guichen  took  refuge  at  St.  Eustatius  and 
afterwards  got  away,  he  put  them  through  a  course 
of  training. 

Late  in  the  year  Great  Britain  declared  war  upon 
Holland  for  assisting  the  American  colonies,  and 
Rodney  getting  word  of  this  pounced  upon  St.  Eus- 
tatius, though  the  French  fleet  had  departed,  seized 
all  the  vessels  in  the  harbour,  confiscated  all  the 
property  in  sight,  and  ordered  the  inhabitants  to 
quit  the  island.  After  the  Seven  Years'  War  the 
English  and  French  had  tried  to  put  a  stop  to  con- 


FIGHTING  FOR  POSSESSION  Q/ 

traband  trading,  but  the  Dutch  and  the  Danes  had 
kept  it  up,  and  St.  Eustatius  and  St.  Thomas  had 
prospered  by  the  misfortunes  and  the  quarrels  of 
their  neighbours.  The  Dutch  had  always  been 
active  as  smugglers  and  contraband  traders,  and 
were  disliked  by  those  who  had  suffered  by  their 
enterprise.  Probably  Rodney  cared  less  for  this 
than  for  the  fact  that  harbour  had  just  been  given 
to  his  enemy.  At  all  events  he  made  St.  Eusta- 
tius suffer,  breaking  up  its  commerce  and  selling 
its  accumulated  merchandise  to  traders  from  the 
English  islands.  But  some  of  the  merchants  at  St. 
Eustatius  were  Englishmen,  many  were  Jews,  and 
those  of  St.  Kitt's  had  profitable  dealings  with  them. 
Emissaries  were  sent  to  England  who  made  trouble 
for  Rodney  with  the  authorities  there.  Politically, 
he  still  lacked  favour,  and,  the  French  having  suc- 
ceeded in  retaking  St.  Eustatius  and  restoring  it  to 
the  Dutchmen,  a  reaction  set  in,  and  the  Admiral 
was  recalled  to  England,  where  he  arrived  in  Sep- 
tember, 1781,  sick  and  disappointed  by  his  trials  and 
the  disfavour  into  which  he  had  fallen. 

But  the  tide  began  to  run  against  British  fortunes 
in  the  western  world.  Lord  Cornwallis  surrendered 
at  Yorktown,  and  De  Grasse  hastened  back  to  the 
West  Indies  to  play  havoc  among  the  English 
islands.  He  captured  St.  Kitt's  and  Nevis,  Mont- 
serrat,  Dominica,  and  St.  Vincent  with  alarming 
rapidity,  and  was  planning  a  scheme  for  routing  the 
English  out  of  the  Antilles,  with  fine  prospects  of 
success.  In  this  dire  emergency  Rodney  was  called 
in  consultation  again,  and  the  upshot  was  that  he 


98  THE  WEST  INDIES 

was  sent  out  with  a  new  fleet  of  twelve  ships  of  the 
Hne  at  the  special  request  of  the  King,  to  take  the 
command  over  the  head  of  Hood.  He  arrived  at 
Barbados  February  19,  1782,  and  soon  learned  that 
De  Grasse  was  off  Martinique  preparing  for  the  con- 
quest of  Jamaica,  with  a  Spanish  fleet  of  fourteen 
ships  waiting  to  join  him  near  the  coast  of  Hispan- 
iola.  De  Grasse  himself  had  thirty-five  vessels 
under  his  command,  with  5000  troops  on  board, 
and  his  flagship,  the  Ville  de  Paris,  was  regarded 
by  the  French  as  the  most  powerful  warship  afloat. 
Rodney,  after  joining  Hood  and  receiving  some 
reinforcements,  had  thirty-six  vessels,  with  the 
Formidable  as  his  flagship,  and  he  took  up  his 
station  at  St.  Lucia,  which  still  remained  in  Eng- 
lish hands,  to  watch  the  movements  of  the  enemy. 
On  the  8th  of  April  he  got  word  that  De  Grasse 
was  setting  sail  for  Hispaniola  to  take  up  the 
Spanish  contingent  for  the  descent  upon  Jamaica. 

The  doughty  Admiral,  who  had  his  own  reputa- 
tion to  vindicate  as  well  as  British  interests  in  the 
West  Indies  to  rescue  from  peril,  put  boldly  forth, 
and  on  the  12th  he  overhauled  the  French  fleet  off 
Dominica.  By  skilful  manoeuvring  he  divided  the 
enemy's  force  and  cut  into  the  midst  of  his  ships  with 
a  furious  fire  from  both  sides,  and  as  the  sun  went 
down  De  Grasse  and  his  terrible  Ville  de  Paris  sur- 
rendered. A  number  of  his  vessels  were  sunk  and 
others  were  captured,  but  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  fleet  was  allowed  to  escape,  for  which  Rodney 
was  criticised  by  Admiral  Hood  and  attacked  by 
his  enemies  in  England. 


FIGHTING  FOR   POSSESSION  99 

But  he  had  won  a  great  victory  and  saved  the 
British  West  Indies,  and  though  Admiral  Pigot  had 
been  sent  out  to  supersede  him  his  work  was  done, 
and  he  was  received  with  great  acclamation  when  he 
got  back  to  England,  and  w^as  made  Lord  Rodney 
with  a  pension  of  10,000  dollars  a  year.  By  the 
treaty  of  Versailles  England  got  back  all  the  islands 
which  she  held  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  except 
Tobago,  which  France  was  allowed  to  add  to  her 
former  possessions. 

Now  there  were  ten  years  of  peace  and  of  great 
material  progress,  but  in  1793  France  was  again  at 
war  with  England  and  Holland.  The  first  thing  the 
English  did  was  to  capture  Tobago,  and  when  in 
January,  1794,  Sir  John  Jervis  arrived  out  with  his 
British  fleet  he  proceeded  to  force  the  surrender  of 
Martinique,  St.  Lucia,  and  Guadeloupe.  In  1796, 
Spain  joined  France  in  the  conflict,  with  the  result 
that  the  English  sent  an  expedition  from  Martinique 
and  wrested  Trinidad  away  from  her,  and  by  the 
treaty  of  Amiens  in  1802  they  were  allowed  to  keep 
it.  The  British  fleet  captured  Curasao  and  the  other 
Dutch  islands  in  1798  and  dominated  the  Carib- 
bees  and  the  Spanish  Main,  but  the  peace  of  Amiens 
restored  the  Dutch  islands  to  Holland  and  the  French 
islands  to  France,  except  that  Great  Britain  was 
allowed  this  time  to  keep  St.  Lucia.  The  peace  was 
short-lived,  and  in  1806  the  English  took  Curasao 
again,  but  it  was  restored  in  1814,  when  a  lasting 
peace  was  made. 

No  other  change  of  possession  took  place  during 
the  contest  of  1803-14,  but  there  was  an  incident  of 


lOO  THE   WEST  INDIES 

no  small  interest  in  West  Indian  history.  At  the 
beginning  of  1805,  Napoleon  planned  his  great  naval 
stroke  of  a  combined  attack  upon  England  by  the 
fleets  of  France  and  Spain.  They  were  distributed 
at  Toulon,  Cadiz,  Rochefort,  and  Brest,  and  were 
to  effect  their  union  at  Martinique,  which,  of  course, 
it  was  the  business  of  the  British  naval  forces  to  pre- 
vent. Nelson  was  in  the  Mediterranean  with  his  eye 
on  Admiral  Villencuve  at  Toulon,  but  he  had  to 
withdraw  occasionally  for  supplies,  and  once  when 
he  was  not  looking  Villeneuve  took  French  leave 
and  escaped  past  Gibraltar  into  the  open.  Nelson 
waited  till  he  knew  which  way  he  had  gone  before 
pursuing  and  was  delayed  some  weeks;  and  then  he 
put  out  with  all  speed  for  the  West  Indies.  He 
arrived  at  Barbados  June  4th,  to  the  enormous  relief 
of  the  alarmed  population,  which  knew  of  the  pres- 
ence in  the  Caribbees  of  the  dreadful  French  fleet, 
or  some  part  of  it.  It  had  not  effected  the  junction 
of  its  forces,  but  Villeneuve  was  off  Antigua,  though 
Nelson  by  false  information  was  sent  down  to  Trini- 
dad in  pursuit  of  him.  Getting  scared,  the  French- 
man put  back,  and  as  soon  as  the  Englishman  got 
wind  of  it  he  was  after  him.  We  know  what  fol- 
lowed, Trafalgar  and  the  death  of  Nelson,  but  this 
was  not  his  only  visit  to  the  West  Indies.  He 
was  cruising  there  twenty  years  before,  and  had  first 
come  with  Lord  Hood  in  1783,  just  after  the  Rod- 
ney days.  It  was  in  the  little  island  of  Nevis  that 
he  married  the  widow  Nisbet  in  1787. 

There  was  a  very  important  change  in  the  owner- 
ship of  one  island  at   this  period,  which   was   not 


FIGHTING  FOR  POSSESSION  lOI 

incidental  to  the  war  between  France  and  England, 
but  an  indirect  consequence  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. French  settlers,  as  we  know,  got  possession 
of  Tortuga  and  the  western  end  of  Haiti  in  the  old 
buccaneering  days,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick  in 
1697  this  territory  was  ceded  to  France.  During 
the  agitation  following  the  French  Revolution  there 
was  a  rising  of  the  blacks  in  Haiti,  and  when  the 
menace  of  a  British  invasion  from  Jamaica  came,  in 
1794,  they  were  brought  to  the  support  of  the  French 
authority  by  an  emancipation  of  the  slaves.  The 
next  year  the  Spanish  part  of  the  island  was  ceded 
to  France.  The  agitation  continued  with  the  result 
that  the  whole  island  practically  gained  its  inde- 
pendence in  1 80 1.  The  western  part  actually  estab- 
lished its  independence  in  1804,  the  rest  remaining 
nominally  under  French  authority  until  1808,  when 
it  was  recovered  by  Spain  with  the  aid  of  British 
troops,  and  retained  until  the  revolution  of  1821 
made  an  independent  republic  of  it. 

This  brings  us  substantially  to  the  final  division 
of  the  spoils  of  Columbus's  first  discoveries.  Spain  re- 
tained Cuba  and  Puerto  Rico  until  the  chronic  revolt 
against  her  oppressive  rule  culminated  in  war  with 
the  United  States  in  1898,  which  swept  away  the 
last  vestige  of  her  American  possessions.  The  first 
of  her  colonies,  the  old  island  of  Hispaniola,  contains 
the  two  independent  republics  of  Haiti  and  Santo 
Domingo.  Jamaica,  all  the  Bahamas,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  belong  to  Great  Britain 
as  the  result  of  colonisation  and  conquest.  France 
still  holds  the  important  islands  of  Guadeloupe,  with 


I02 


THE  WEST  INDIES 


its  pendants,  Desirade,  Marie  Galante,  and  Les 
Saintes,  Martinique,  and,  as  dependencies  of  Guade- 
loupe, St.  Bartholomew  and  part  of  St.  Martin,  in 
the  northern  Caribbees.  Holland  retains  Curasao, 
Aruba,  and  Buen  Aire,  off  the  coast  of  Venezuela, 
with  Saba,  St.  Eustatius,  and  part  of  St.  Martin  in 
the  northern  Caribbees  as  dependencies  of  the  same 
colony.  Denmark  first  got  possession  of  St.  Thomas 
as  a  trading  station,  and  acquired  Santa  Cruz  and  St. 
John  by  purchase,  and  has  held  them  through  all  the 
wars  and  contests  without  even  the  necessity  of  de- 
fending them.  The  United  States  for  the  first  time, 
as  the  result  of  the  Cuban  war,  put  its  foot  on  the 
junction  of  the  Greater  and  Lesser  Antilles,  the 
centre  of  the  great  bow  that  guards  the  Caribbean 
Sea  and  the  approaches  of  the  American  isthmus, 
and  Puerto  Rico  became  her  territory. 


CHAPTER  X 


WEST   INDIAN    SLAVERY 


THE  Spaniards  who  first  took  possession  in  the 
West  Indies  were  in  quest  of  earthly  treasures. 
The  conversion  of  the  poor  benighted  heathen  was 
subordinate  to  that  even  in  the  mind  of  the  pious 
Columbus  and  of  his  great  patrons  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  who  invested  so  liberally  in  his  risky  enter- 
prise. But  while  the  Spaniards  could  endure  hard- 
ship and  privation  in  this  quest,  they  did  not  like  to 
toil  for  the  treasures.  When  their  effort  to  extract 
them  by  the  labour  of  the  natives  failed,  through 
the  natives'  preference  for  death  if  they  could  not 
have  liberty,  they  began  the  importation  of  African 
slaves  to  work  the  mines  of  Hispaniola. 

At  that  time,  Portugal  claimed  possession  of  the 
African  coast  and  was  the  first  to  engage  in  the  slave 
trade.  The  victims  were  already  slaves  in  Northern 
Africa,  and  were  bought  from  Moorish  and  other 
native  masters,  but  it  was  not  long  before  kidnapping 
began  to  be  resorted  to  down  on  the  western  coast. 
Some  of  the  slaves  had  been  sold  in  Portugal  and  in 
Spain,  but  the  demand  from  the  West  Indies  gave 

103 


I04  THE   WEST  INDIES 

the  first  strong  impetus  to  the  traffic,  and  in  15 17 
an  edict  of  the  Spanish  Government  authorised 
the  importation  of  4000  annually  into  Hispaniola. 
When  the  mining  fever  subsided  through  lack  of 
profit  or  the  greater  attractions  of  El  Dorado  on 
"  the  Main,"  the  negroes  were  put  to  work  on  the 
growing  plantations,  and  were  introduced  into  Cuba 
and  Jamaica.  Even  the  good  Las  Casas,  in  his  pity 
for  the  disappearing  aborigines,  countenanced  the 
substitution  of  slaves  from  Africa,  though  he  re- 
pented when  he  realised  the  consequences.  The 
Portuguese  did  not  long  enjoy  a  monopoly  of  trading 
in  human  commodities.  The  roving  traders  of  Eng- 
land, France,  and  the  Netherlands  took  a  hand,  and 
kidnapping  became  the  easiest  and  most  profitable 
method  of  obtaining  the  supply.  It  was  then  that 
Sir  John  Hawkins  attained  the  evil  celebrity  which 
his  naval  services  could  not  efface,  as  a  slave-trader; 
but  it  was  not  until  the  development  of  the  planta- 
tion system  in  the  next  century  that  the  traffic  as- 
sumed large  proportions,  and  slavery  was  planted 
on  an  extensive  scale  in  the  West  Indies. 

Though  sugar-cane  had  been  brought  by  Colum- 
bus, sugar  in  Europe  was  still  a  medicament  bought 
by  the  ounce  from  the  apothecary,  or  at  most  a 
costly  luxury  for  the  rich ;  and  the  culture  in  the 
islands  was  of  slow  growth.  Cotton  had  been  used 
by  the  aborigines  to  a  limited  extent  in  simple 
fabrics,  and  it  had  been  introduced  into  Europe  from 
"  Calicut  "  and  elsewhere  in  the  Orient;  but  it  was 
long  before  its  cultivation  became  a  systematic  in- 
dustry, and  then  it  was  almost  confined  to  Jamaica 


WEST  INDIAN  SLAVERY  105 

and  some  small  islands  after  they  became  English. 
Tobacco  made  its  way  gradually  as  a  marketable 
commodity  in  Europe,  and  finally  coffee  was  intro- 
duced as  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  new 
Indies. 

It  was  not  until  after  the  English  had  colonised 
Barbados  that  the  development  of  the  sugar  planta- 
tion began;  it  received  a  tremendous  impulse  after 
the  taking  of  Jamaica,  and  it  soon  began  to  divide 
the  field  with  tobacco  in  Cuba.  The  great  price  of 
sugar  in  Europe  and  the  cheapness  of  its  production 
in  the  Indies  made  the  cultivation  of  the  cane  and 
the  extraction  of  its  saccharine  contents  an  extremely 
profitable  business,  but  the  labour  of  the  negro  was 
considered  necessary  to  carry  it  on,  and  no  one 
thought  of  using  it  otherwise  than  as  slave  labour. 
Plantations  multiplied  not  only  on  the  English 
islands  and  in  Cuba  and  Hispaniola,  but  on  the 
French  islands  and  to  a  less  extent  those  occupied 
by  the  Dutch;  and  an  enormous  impulse  was  given 
to  the  slave  trade.  Sugar  was  the  great  industry 
from  Barbados  to  Santa  Cruz  and  in  Jamaica  and 
Cuba,  varied  with  coffee  in  Martinique,  cotton  in 
Jamaica,  and  tobacco  in  Cuba  as  the  great  staples; 
and  Europeans  who  invested  their  money  in  large 
plantations  and  bought  many  slaves  acquired  vast 
fortunes  in  a  few  years  and  lived  like  nabobs. 

Bryan  Edwards,  the  historian  of  the  British  colo- 
nies in  the  West  Indies,  declares  that  from  1680  to 
1786  not  less  than  2,130,000  blacks  were  imported 
from  Africa,  of  whom  610,000  were  landed  in  Ja- 
maica; and  the  traffic  began  long  before  that  period 


I06  THE   WEST  INDIES 

and  continued  long  after  it.  In  the  days  of  the 
smugglers  and  buccaneers  negro  slaves  were  a  con- 
spicuous article  in  the  traffic  and  plunder  of  the  time, 
and  were  considered  a  perfectly  legitimate  commod- 
ity, without  which  other  business  than  piracy  could 
hardly  go  on  in  the  great  archipelago.  The  wretched 
Africans  were  scarcely  looked  upon  as  human  beings, 
and  were  brought  over  the  seas  crowded  and  huddled 
in  the  holds  of  vessels,  where  many  died,  to  be 
dumped  overboard  like  refuse.  Probably  no  artist 
in  words  or  colours  could  exaggerate  the  "  horrors 
of  the  middle  passage,"  while  beings  who  claimed 
to  be  devout  Christians  and  used  the  language  of 
such  commanded  the  overloaded  slavers,  bound  from 
the  Guinea  coast  to  the  West  Indies,  and  alas! 
sometimes  to  the  British  colonies  on  the  continent 
of  America  which  became  the  United  States. 

And  herded  on  the  great  plantations  in  the  islands, 
these  creatures  were  treated  like  cattle.  Sometimes 
cattle  are  treated  extremely  well,  and  it  is  policy  so 
to  treat  those  that  work ;  but  sometimes  human  cattle 
are  not  submissive.  Many  of  the  owners  of  large 
plantations,  especially  those  in  Jamaica,  were  absen- 
tees who  squandered  their  substance  in  luxurious 
living  in  London  and  left  their  West  Indian  estates 
in  charge  of  agents,  who  employed  overseers  and 
slave-drivers.  The  few  white  people  of  the  islands, 
the  planters  and  their  representatives  and  employees, 
were  practically  rulers  of  the  land,  and  the  far-off 
authority  af  the  home  government  gave  little  heed 
to  their  doings.  We  know  the  effect  of  arbitrary 
power  and  unrestrained  control  of  the  strong  over 


IVEST  INDIAN  SLAVERY  lo/ 

the  helpless  upon  the  average  nature  of  man,  espe- 
cially the  adventurous  type  of  man  that  peopled  the 
tropical  colonies.  That  there  were  terrible  cruelties 
in  many  cases  need  not  be  said,  and  of  the  horrors 
of  plantation  life  in  slave  lands  and  in  slavery  times 
there  have  been  many  lurid  pictures.     Under  the 

black  code  "  of  Jamaica  the  slave  had  no  rights 
of  property  and  few  of  person,  and  little  protection 
from  outrage.  His  testimony  was  not  legal  evidence 
against  any  white  men,  and  he  could  be  unmercifully 
flogged,  maimed,  and  maltreated  with  impunity; 
but  if  he  showed  violence  toward  his  keeper,  torture 
or  death  was  the  almost  certain  penalty.  Gradual 
burning  alive,  beginning  at  the  feet,  was  a  legal 
punishment  on  a  second  conviction  for  beating  a 
white  man,  and  all  manner  of  tortures  were  used  to 
compel  abject  submission  of  the  slave  to  his  task- 
master. 

It  is  no  wonder  that  the  maroons  were  constantly 
recruited  by  fugitives  from  the  plantations  and  be- 
came a  formidable  power  in  the  mountains  of  Ja- 
maica, committing  depredations  and  atrocities  and 
spreading  terror  among  the  white  population  from 
time  to  time;  and  it  is  not  strange  that  Jamaica  was 
disturbed  at  frequent  intervals  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries  by  insurrections  of  slaves, 
and  that  the  whites  were  constantly  alarmed  by  the 
menace  of  risings,  for  their  human  cattle  outnum- 
bered them  about  fifty  to  one.  The  state  of  things 
was  not  so  bad  in  the  smaller  English  islands,  which 
had  not  been  so  much  the  resort  of  buccaneers  and 
reckless  adventurers,  or  so  largely  colonised  by  con- 


I08  THE   WEST  INDIES 

victs  and  cutthroats,  but  it  was  bad  enough. 
Nothing  was  done  to  "  improve  the  condition  "  of 
the  blacks.  The  English  Church  did  not  recognise 
them  as  baptisable  human  beings,  and  teaching 
them  was  severely  discountenanced.  In  the  French 
islands,  the  general  treatment  of  slaves  seems  to 
have  been  about  as  harsh  and  about  as  liable  to  bar- 
barous cruelty  as  in  those  under  British  sovereignty ; 
but  the  Catholic  priests  did  credit  them  with  souls 
and  made  some  effort  to  save  them  from  perdition, 
though  never  dreaming  that  they  were  entitled  to 
liberty  in  this  world. 

Let  us  do  the  much-abused  Spaniard  one  little 
measure  of  justice.  After  slavery  became  an  estab- 
lished institution  in  his  colonies,  the  negroes  were 
not  so  badly  treated  as  in  Jamaica  and  Barbados,  or 
even  in  Martinique  and  Santa  Cruz.  The  Spaniard 
became  a  real  colonist  in  the  West  Indies.  He  lived 
on  his  plantation,  and  peasants  came  out  from  An- 
dalusia and  Catalonia  and  from  the  Basque  prov- 
inces and  settled  in  Cuba  and  Espanola  and  Puerto 
Rico.  The  Spaniard  became  acclimatised  and 
learned  to  work  and  attend  to  business  in  his  tropi- 
cal home,  and  as  a  consequence  a  majority  of  the 
present  natives  of  Cuba  and  Puerto  Rico  are  whites, 
or  Creoles,  while  in  the  other  islands  the  negro 
vastly  preponderates  in  the  population.  The  pres- 
ence of  working  white  men  and  the  direct  interest 
and  supervision  of  owners  living  on  their  estates 
certainly  mitigated  slavery  in  the  Spanish  West  In- 
dies, where  the  negroes  had  certain  recognised  and 
legally  protected  rights.      Not  only  did  the  Church 


IV£ST  INDIAN  SLA  VER  Y  109 

look  after  their  souls,  but  the  State  treated  them  as 
human  beings,  albeit  in  abject  servitude.  Among 
the  rights  guaranteed  to  them  was  that  of  free  mar- 
riage, the  purchase  of  their  own  freedom  by  labour, 
and  the  holding  of  property. 

Except  in  the  island  of  Haiti,  the  slave  population 
would  have  diminished  constantly  but  for  the  con- 
tinual importation  of  fresh  supplies.  Most  of  the 
negro  women  of  the  early  slave-trade  were  landed 
in  Hispan-iola,  and  the  enterprising  trafifickers  of  a 
later  day  dealt  mostly  in  able-bodied  men.  Even 
when  women  were  brought  over  for  the  deliberate 
purpose  of  breeding  slaves  there  was  no  natural  in- 
crease of  the  race,  but  rather  a  falling  off,  until  the 
present  century.  The  agitation  for  the  suppression 
of  the  African  slave-trade  began  in  England  toward 
the  end  of  the  last  century,  and  was  carried  on  with 
great  vigour  under  the  lead  of  Wilberforce,  Clark- 
son,  and  other  philanthropic  men,  who  met  with 
the  usual  opposition  to  great  reforms.  Denmark  was 
the  first  to  take  practical  action,  and  she  declared  the 
slave  trade  unlawful  in  1792.  It  was  abolished  in 
Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  in  1807,  and  France 
and  Holland  soon  followed,  while  Spain  brought  up 
the  rear  in  1820.  There  was  a  great  deal  of  contra- 
band traffic  after  the  formal  abolition,  especially  in 
Cuba,  whose  demand  for  labour  was  not  well  sup- 
plied. It  has  been  said  that  not  less  than  500,000 
Africans  were  brought  to  the  island  and  sold  into 
slavery  after  the  traffic  was  prohibited,  while  Hum- 
boldt estimated  the  total  importation  before  1820  at 
4i3>50o. 


no  THE   WEST  INDIES 

The  abolitionists  were  not  content  with  procuring 
the  prohibition  of  the  African  slave-trade,  but  became 
emancipators  and  kept  up  the  agitation  for  putting 
an  end  to  human  slavery  altogether,  which,  of  course, 
was  regarded  as  peculiarly  radical  and  visionary. 
The  planters  had  no  doubt  that  it  would  be  ruinous 
to  the  West  Indian  colonies.  Emancipation  had 
already  been  effected  in  Haiti  as  the  result  of  the 
French  Revolution  and  the  turmoil  that  followed, 
and  it  produced  restlessness  among  the  blacks  in  the 
other  French  islands.  In  Martinique  it  almost  came 
to  an  insurrection.  The  abolition  of  the  slave  trade 
had  its  effect  in  arousing  hopes  of  freedom,  and  still 
another  disturbing  element  had  come  in.  Protest- 
ant missionaries  of  the  dissenting  denominations  had 
been  working  among  the  negroes  and  instilling  into 
them  the  heretical  notion  that  they  had  souls  worth 
saving,  and  were  entitled  to  have  the  gospel  preached 
unto  them.  These  things,  even  when  accompanied 
by  promises  of  joy  in  another  world,  were  calculated 
to  produce  discontent  with  their  lot  in  this  life 
among  the  poor  creatures  whose  humanity  was  thus 
imprudently  recognised.  The  planters  were  dis- 
turbed by  this  continual  interference  with  the  old 
order  of  things,  and  when  the  flogging  of  women 
and  the  using  of  the  slave-driver's  whip  in  the  fields 
were  prohibited,  and  they  were  required  to  manumit 
slaves  who  wished  to  buy  their  freedom,  they  be- 
came seriously  alarmed.  Many  of  the  negroes  knew 
what  was  going  on  in  their  behalf,  and  began  to 
agitate  on  their  own  account.  One  free  black  fellow 
in    Barbados,    named   Washington  Franklin,    made 


WEST  INDIAN  SLA  VER  V  III 

eloquent  speeches  which  led  the  slaves  to  believe 
that  their  freedom  was  at  hand. 

Finally,  in  1833,  the  pestilent  abolitionists  in  Eng- 
land got  through  their  Act  of  Parliament  declaring 
an  end  of  slavery  in  the  British  colonies  on  and  after 
August  I,  1834,  and  providing  that  household  serv- 
ants should  continue  in  a  relation  of  apprenticeship 
to  their  masters  for  four  years  and  field  hands  for 
six  years  thereafter.  All  children  born  after  the 
date  of  emancipation  were  free,  and  by  subsequent 
legislation  the  qualified  servitude  by  apprenticeship 
was  terminated  for  all  on  August  i,  1838. 

Slavery  continued  in  the  French  islands  until  the 
fall  of  Louis  Philippe  in  1848,  when  the  revolution- 
ary government  abolished  it.  Denmark  had  pro- 
vided in  1847  that  from  the  28th  of  July  of  that  year 
all  children  born  of  slaves  should  be  free,  and  at  the 
end  of  twelve  years  from  that  date  slavery  should 
cease  in  the  Danish  colonies.  This  postponement 
caused  discontent  and  there  was  an  uprising  in  Santa 
Cruz.  A  mob  of  negroes  marched  into  Christiansted 
threatening  slaughter,  and  the  governor  hastened 
over  from  St.  Thomas  and  tried  to  put  it  down  by 
declaring  that  the  slaves  were  free,  and  asking  them 
to  disperse  and  enjoy  the  boon  of  liberty  in  quiet. 
They  doubted  his  authority  or  good  faith,  and  had 
to  be  put  down  by  force,  Spanish  soldiers  coming 
from  Puerto  Rico  to  help  in  the  process.  The  gov- 
ernor's declaration  of  emancipation  was  confirmed 
by  the  home  government  as  the  easiest  and  safest 
way  of  allaying  the  trouble. 

Slavery    continued    in    the    Dutch    islands    until 


112  THE   WEST  INDIES 

1863,  when  it  was  replaced  by  ten  years  of  compul- 
sory labour  for  compensation,  bringing  complete 
freedom  in  1873.  A  law  was  passed  in  1870  giving 
freedom  in  Cuba  to  all  slaves  over  sixty  years  of 
age  and  to  all  children  born  after  it  took  effect,  but 
internal  difficulties  prevented  the  execution  of  this 
measure;  and  in  1880  the  Cuban  Emancipation  Act 
was  approved  at  Madrid,  which  put  an  end  to  slav- 
ery altogether  six  years  later.  In  the  meantime  all 
slaves  in  Puerto  Rico  had  been  freed  on  the  23d 
of  March,  1873.  It  was  on  October  6,  1886,  that 
slavery  in  the  West  Indies  came  to  an  end. 

The  effect  of  emancipation  was  different  in  the 
different  islands.  It  was  disastrous  to  the  absentee 
planters  of  Jamaica,  for  instance.  It  was  not  easy 
to  get  the  freed  negroes  to  work  in  sufficient  num- 
bers, and  the  cost  of  labour  increased,  while  the  one 
great  interest  of  sugar  production  was  depressed 
from  other  causes.  Estates  became  encumbered, 
expenses  could  not  be  maintained,  and  plantations 
fell  into  neglect,  while  their  owners  in  Europe  fell 
into  bankruptcy.  The  negroes  began  to  get  posses- 
sion of  land,  the  whites  began  to  emigrate,  and  the 
prosperous  days  of  Jamaica  seemed  to  have  departed. 
The  greatest  drawback,  however,  was  the  existence 
of  large  plantations  devoted  to  a  single  industry  and 
owned  by  absentees,  and  a  lack  of  enterprise  and 
willingness  to  live  on  the  island  and  attend  to  busi- 
ness on  the  part  of  English  landowners. 

To  some  extent  there  was  a  similar  effect  in  the 
other  English  islands.  Where  there  was  unoccupied 
land,   as    in    Trinidad    and   Dominica,   the  negroes 


WEST  INDIAN  SLAVERY  II3 

showed  a  disposition  to  desert  the  plantations  where 
they  had  been  in  servitude  and  to  set  up  for  them- 
selves in  a  small  way,  leaving  the  owners  to  whistle 
for  labour.  To  some  extent  they  called  it  in  from 
over  seas  in  the  form  of  coolies  from  India  and  China, 
who  worked  under  contract  for  a  term  of  years;  but 
the  prosperity  of  the  planters  was  not  what  it  had 
been.  In  Barbados,  which  stands  apart  from  the 
other  islands,  the  land  was  practically  all  in  posses- 
sion and  under  cultivation,  and  the  freed  negroes 
had  to  work  for  their  former  owners,  or  perish. 
Barbados  suffered  less  than  the  other  islands  from 
the  upset  of  the  labour  system,  and  but  for  the  gen- 
eral depression  of  sugar  would  have  continued  to 
prosper.  In  fact,  it  has  continued  to  prosper  fairly. 
In  the  French  islands,  the  general  effect  of  emanci- 
pation was  much  the  same  as  in  the  English  colonies, 
but  there  the  whites  have  become  more  easily  recon- 
ciled to  the  small  holdings  of  land  by  the  negroes 
and  mestizos,  and  less  addicted  to  abandoning  their 
island  homes. 

The  least  unfavourable  consequences  were  felt  in 
the  Spanish  colonies,  where  the  white  population 
predominated,  and  where  the  relations  between 
whites  and  blacks  had  been  more  nearly  those  of 
sympathy  if  not  of  equality.  Each  race  adapted 
itself  to  the  changed  conditions,  and  comparatively 
little  trouble  has  arisen  from  the  labour  question 
in  Cuba  and  Puerto  Rico. 

Slavery  is  responsible  for  the  general  character  of 
the  population  of  the  West  Indies,  and  especially 
for  the  great  preponderance  of  negroes  and  those 


114 


THE  WEST  INDIES 


of  mixed  blood  in  nearly  all  the  islands,  and  it  is 
the  primary  cause  of  the  problems  presented  in  the 
government  of  the  colonies  there.  A  ghastly  ex- 
hibition of  the  consequences  of  the  experiment  of 
self-government  for  those  unprepared  for  it  has  been 
going  on  in  Haiti  nearly  all  the  present  century. 


•tJjRS 


CHAPTER  XI 


THE   BAHAMAS   OR   LUCAYAN   ISLANDS 


THE  submarine  extension  of  our  continent 
stretches  in  a  long  and  relatively  narrow 
plateau  from  the  coast  of  Florida  south-easterly  to 
the  deep  channels  off  the  shores  of  Cuba  and  Haiti. 
This  great  platform  from  which  the  Bahama  Islands 
rise  is  more  than  seven  hundred  miles  long  and  from 
one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  miles  wide; 
and  its  outer  declivity  plunges  abruptly  to  depths 
of  12,000  to  15,000  feet.  From  that  huge  rampart 
its  general  level  slopes  gradually  downward  toward 
the  west  and  south-west,  till  it  sinks  off  into  the 
abyss  of  10,000  feet  or  more  toward  the  Windward 
Passage  between  Cuba  and  Haiti,  the  depth  dimin- 
ishing from  there  westward  to  6000  in  the  Old 
Bahama  Channel,  about  4000  in  the  New  Bahama 
Channel,  and  1000  in  the  Straits  of  Florida  over 
the  ridge  whose  farther  slope  sinks  into  the  depths 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

On  the  surface  of  this  peninsula  plateau  beneath 
the  waves  there  are  banks  and  shoals  of  varying  ex- 
tent and  altitude,  and  it  is  penetrated  here  and  there 
by  fiords  and  deep  valleys.      Near  its  northern  part 

115 


Il6  THE  WEST  INDIES 

the  Providence  Channel  cuts  in  from  the  ocean  on 
the  east  and  from  the  Florida  Straits  on  the  west, 
and  the  two  branches  coalesce  in  the  submarine  gulf 
called  the  "  Tongue  of  the  Ocean,"  which  extends 
lengthwise  of  the  plateau.  There  are  also  in  the 
watery  depths  what  would  be  called  land-locked 
lakes,  or  bays,  if  their  margins  were  above  the  sur- 
face. From  this  huge  but  broken  platform  rise  the 
peaks  and  pinnacles  whose  tops  reach  the  sunlight 
and  the  air,  and  constitute  the  hundreds  of  rocks 
and  reefs  and  the  few  habitable  islands  which  we 
know  as  the  Bahamas.  For  the  most  part,  these 
have  been  built  up  by  the  incessant  growth  through 
centuries  of  the  coral  polyp,  and  the  growth  goes 
on  still,  changing  their  contour  from  age  to  age. 
The  process  of  construction  which  began  when  this 
region  first  sank  beneath  the  waves  can  be  watched 
and  studied  to-day.  Sometimes  the  coral  builders 
work  up  columns  from  the  bottom,  from  thirty  to 
fifty  feet  high  and  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  in  diameter, 
which  slowly  spread  at  the  surface,  like  an  expand- 
ing mushroom,  to  a  breadth  of  one  hundred  feet  or 
more.  Those  in  proximity  coalesce,  and  amid 
crumbling  and  cementing  by  the  currents  and  the 
calcareous  sands,  they  form  islands  in  whose  founda- 
tions are  caves  and  vaults  and  weird  galleries  and 
corridors,  where  shapeless  monsters  lurk.  These 
caverns  exist  beneath  all  the  islands,  and  in  the  por- 
ous substructure  the  waters  of  the  ocean  ebb  and 
flow,  often  lifting  and  letting  down  with  every  tide 
the  fresh  water  of  wells.  And  around  the  islands 
are  the  silent  labyrinths  of 


THE  BAHAMAS  OR  LUC  AY  AN  ISLANDS      11/ 

"  the  coral  grove 
Where  the  purple  mullet  and  the  goldfish  rove," 

and  a  thousand  fantastic  forms  which  simulate  vege- 
tation and  make  the  "  gardens  of  the  sea." 

The  islands  consist  of  the  calcareous  rock  formed 
of  coral  and  shells  and  the  cementing  substance  that 
comes  from  abrasion  of  the  same  material,  and  of 
the  light  soil  which  ages  have  accumulated  from  the 
growth  and  decay  of  vegetation  upon  the  surface. 
There  is  no  sign  of  primitive  or  volcanic  formation, 
but  only  this  result  of  coral  growth.  The  general 
level  is  but  a  few  feet  above  the  water,  though  it 
rises  here  and  there  in  a  ridge  or  a  hill  of  a  hundred 
feet  or  more,  and  reaches  its  culmination  on  Cat 
Island  in  an  altitude  of  less  than  four  hundred  feet. 
The  limestone  exposed  to  the  air  is  hard,  but  below 
the  surface  it  is  easily  quarried  into  blocks  by  sawing, 
and  these  harden  from  exposure.  The  soil  which 
covers  it  in  part,  and  which  really  has  come  from  its 
substance,  is  strangely  fertile  in  many  places.  On  a 
few  of  the  larger  islands  there  are  forest  growths  of 
hard  wood,  as  mahogany,  ironwood,  and  lignum- 
vitae,  and  also  of  pitch-pine  and  palm.  On  some  there 
is  rank  vegetation  of  a  subtropical  kind,  and  the  soil 
is  easily  cultivated  to  the  production  of  many  fruits 
and  vegetables.  There  are  tamarinds,  oranges, 
lemons,  limes,  citrons,  pineapples,  pomegranates, 
bananas,  figs,  and  others;  but  pineapples  and 
oranges  are  those  chiefly  grown  for  the  market. 
There  are  also  melons,  yams,  potatoes,  cassava,  pep- 
per, ginger,  coffee,  cocoa,   indigo,  cotton,  tobacco, 


Il8  THE  WEST  INDIES 

corn,  peas,  etc.,  more  or  less  raised  upon  this  cal- 
careous soil. 

There  is  variety  of  life  in  the  waters,  of  turtles, 
fish,  molluscs,  and  all  manner  of  inhabitants  of 
shells ;  and  the  gathering  of  sponges,  pearls,  and 
ambergris  has  been  among  the  occupations  of  na- 
tives and  settlers  time  out  of  mind ;  but  the  land 
fauna  is  scanty.  The  "  dumb  dog,"  as  the  Span- 
iards called  it,  of  the  aborigines  was  probably  the 
raccoon,  and  there  were  a  few  small  quadrupeds  and 
reptiles,  including  the  ugly  but  harmless  iguana. 
There  is  no  profusion  of  birds,  but  among  those 
worth  noticing  are  the  flamingo,  the  parrot,  and 
the  humming-bird.  Cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and 
domestic  fowl,  though  not  indigenous,  thrive  in 
the  climate.  And  that  climate  is  of  the  mild  and 
genial  kind  of  the  verge  of  the  tropic  zone  sur- 
rounded by  the  water  and  the  air  of  the  ocean. 
The  temperature  in  summer  ranges  from  75°  to 
88°  Fahrenheit,  and  in  winter  perhaps  ten  degrees 
lower.  There  is  a  wet  season  from  May  to  Octo- 
ber which  varies  in  wetness,  and  the  rest  of  the  year 
is  delightful  with  warm  sunshine  and  balmy  breezes. 
Here  is  the  paradise  of  delicate  lungs  and  sensitive 
throats  for  those  from  harsher  climes,  though  the 
native  negroes  are  often  the  victims  of  pulmonary 
weakness.  The  Bahamas  are  in  the  occasional  track 
of  the  hurricane,  which  loses  much  of  its  strength 
by  the  time  it  reaches  this  latitude,  but  sometimes 
sweeps  with  destructive  fury  along  their  scattered 
length. 

In  noting  the  general  arrangement  and  character- 


THE   BAHAMAS  OR   LUCAYAN  ISLANDS      II9 

istics  of  the  principal  islands,  we  will  begin  with  that 
nearest  the  Florida  coast,  barely  sixty  miles  off  Palm 
Beach.  It  is  the  Great  Bahama,  which  retains  the 
native  name  of  the  whole  group.  It  is  long  and 
narrow,  but  lies  across  the  head  of  the  plateau  in- 
stead of  along  its  length  like  most  of  the  others.  It 
has  always  been  sparsely  peopled  and  of  little  im- 
portance, and  its  present  small  population  is  mostly 
descended  from  a  few  Scotch  planters  and  their 
slaves.  To  the  east  of  it  are  Little  and  Great  Abaco. 
Great  Abaco  was  the  Yucaya  of  the  aborigines,  who 
called  themselves  Yucayos.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
populous  of  the  islands,  having  about  4000  inhabit- 
ants, mostly  whites  and  descendants  of  loyalists  who 
left  the  Carolinas  after  the  revolutionary  war.  It 
is  also  one  of  the  wooded  islands  which  makes  some 
use  of  its  timber.  Its  chief  village  is  Hopetown, 
built  on  a  narrow  peninsula. 

Below  these  islands,  which  stand  at  the  head  of  the 
group,  are  the  two  branches  of  the  Providence  Chan- 
nel, and  just  where  these  flow  into  one  lies  the  small 
but  important  island  of  New  Providence.  It  is 
nearly  oval  in  form,  extending  east  and  west,  and  is 
barely  sixteen  and  a  half  miles  long  by  six  miles 
wide;  but  it  contains  a  population  of  nearly  15,000, 
more  than  one  fourth  of  that  of  the  whole  Bahama 
group.  Two  thirds  of  the  inhabitants  live  in  the 
town  of  Nassau,  the  capital  of  the  colony  and  its 
one  important  port.  It  is  the  position  of  this  island 
at  the  converging  of  the  channels  and  in  the  narrow 
line  of  deep-water  navigation,  and  the  fact  that  its 
harbour  will  admit  vessels  of  fifteen  feet  draught, 


I20  THE   WEST  INDIES 

while  no  other  in  all  the  islands  has  a  depth  of  more 
than  nine  feet,  that  make  it  the  site  of  the  colonial 
capital  and  give  it  all  its  consequence.  Near  the 
north  shore  of  New  Providence,  for  nearly  its  whole 
length,  runs  a  wooded  ridge  from  eighty  to  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  feet  high,  upon  the  seaward  slope  of 
which,  five  and  a  half  miles  from  its  eastern  end,  is 
the  picturesque  and  solidly  built  town  of  Nassau. 
About  six  and  a  half  miles  from  the  western  end  of 
the  island,  at  a  place  called  Cave  Point,  a  spur  from 
this  northern  ridge,  known  as  "  the  Blue  Hills," 
strikes  inland,  and  on  either  side  of  it  is  a  consider- 
able lake  of  brackish  water  that  sways  with  the  tide. 
The  town  of  Nassau  has  at  times  a  lively  commerce, 
and  affords  facilities  for  docking  and  repairing  ves- 
sels. Its  buildings  are  of  the  limestone  that  is  sawed 
into  blocks  when  fresh  and  hardens  afterwards. 
There  is  a  modest  Government  House,  a  plain  cathe- 
dral, several  churches  and  chapels,  the  bishop's 
abode,  a  public  library,  an  asylum  and  hospital,  a 
military  station,  an  institute,  a  charitable  society, 
and  several  schools. 

The  Berry  Isles,  just  north  of  New  Providence, 
are  only  occupied  by  a  few  pilots,  and  the  Bemini 
Keys,  to  the  west,  are  distinguished  merely  as  the 
site  of  Ponce  de  Leon's  delusive  fountain  of  youth. 
To  the  east,  however,  is  the  long,  crescent-shaped 
Eleuthera, — so  named  from  the  Eleuthcra  Croton, 
once  valued  for  its  medicinal  properties, — a  fertile, 
fairly  peopled,  and  cultivated  island,  and  the  special 
garden  of  the  pineapple.  Harbour  Island,  close 
by,  practically  covered  by  Dunmore  Town,  with  its 


THE  BAHAMAS  OR   LUCAYAN  ISLANDS      121 

2000  inhabitants  in  a  space  of  two  square  miles,  is  a 
favourite  health  resort,  and  the  place  of  residence  of 
the  wealthier  planters  of  Eleuthera,  To  the  south- 
east and  separated  by  a  few  miles  from  Eleuthera  is 
another  long,  curved  island,  though  not  so  long  or 
so  curved,  called  by  the  name  of  Cat,  because  that 
animal  runs  wild  upon  it  in  a  manner  that  may  be 
harmless  but  is  not  necessary.  Cat  Island  contains 
one  hundred  and  sixty-five  square  miles  of  fairly 
fertile  land,  but  it  was  wholly  deserted  in  1785  when 
one  hundred  loyalist  emigrants  from  the  United 
States  with  their  slaves  took  possession.  It  now 
has  a  population  of  about  4000.  Over  on  the  west 
of  the  group,  to  the  south-west  of  New  Providence, 
stretching  along  that  deep  gulf  called  the  "  Tongue 
of  the  Ocean,"  but  with  a  shallow  expanse  of  water 
upon  its  margin,  is  Andros,  the  largest  in  area  of 
the  Bahama  Islands,  containing,  it  is  said,  about  as 
much  surface  above  water  as  all  the  rest.  It  is 
rather  a  group  of  islands,  separated  by  narrow  and 
shallow  channels,  and  covered  with  swamps  and 
forests.  The  shallow  water  about  its  shores  and  the 
utter  lack  of  harbours  make  it  of  little  use,  and  it 
has  only  about  1000  inhabitants,  mostly  negroes  en- 
gaged in  gathering  sponges.  It  is  the  only  island  in 
all  the  Bahamas  that  has  running  streams.  Dividing 
the  space  between  Eleuthera  and  Cat  on  one  side 
and  Andros  on  the  other,  and  acting  as  the  crest  to 
the  barrier  between  the  ' '  Tongue  of  the  Ocean ' '  and 
Exuma  Sound,  is  a  string  of  reefs  terminating  in 
Great  Exuma  Island,  which  with  its  imposing  name 
is  of  small  account.     To  the  south  of  this  is  Long 


122  THE   WEST  INDIES 

Island,  noted  only  for  its  length  and  as  one  of  the 
stopping-places  of  Columbus,  who  called  it  Fernan- 
dina.  But  ofT  to  the  east  of  this,  with  Rum  Cay  be- 
tween, standing  as  an  outpost  on  the  Atlantic  marge 
of  the  plateau,  is  Watling  Island,  the  San  Salvador 
of  the  great  discoverer.  It  is  about  twelve  miles 
long  by  six  wide,  and  its  area  is  cut  up  by  salt-water 
lagoons  separated  by  low,  wooded  hills.  It  has  a 
scattered  and  rather  listless  population  of  perhaps 
2000,  mostly  simple-minded  negroes  living  in  primi- 
tive fashion. 

Continuing  down  the  range  near  its  central  line 
we  find  the  group  of  Fortune,  Crooked,  and  Acklin 
among  the  inhabited  islands.  They  are  separated 
by  narrow  and  fordable  passages  and  are  nearer  to 
being  one  island  than  Andros.  Here,  too,  was  a 
stopping-place  of  Columbus,  who  considered  the 
group  one  island  and  named  it  Isabella.  Fortune 
has,  next  to  New  Providence,  the  best  port  in  the 
Bahamas,  Pitt's  Town,  and  consequently  enjoys 
quite  a  flourishing  trade  with  coasters  and  visiting 
steamers.  This  is  due  to  its  situation  on  the  naviga- 
ble channel  called  Crooked  Island  Passage.  Mari- 
guana  is  an  insignificant  piece  of  ground,  and  Great 
Inagua  has  few  inhabitants,  and  those  mostly  con- 
centrated in  Matthew  Town.  The  Caicos  and  Turks, 
which  have  been  politically  separated  from  the  Ba- 
hamas and  attached  to  Jamaica  since  1848,  have  a 
few  weary  inhabitants,  who  used  to  thrive  on  salt, 
but  when  the  United  States  put  a  heavy  duty  on 
their  chief  product  it  closed  their  best  market,  and 
they  have  been  obliged  to  gain  a  precarious  liveli- 


THE   BAHAMAS  OR   LUCAYAN  ISLANDS      1 23 

hood  from  sand  and  water  in  some  other  way  than 
evaporation.  Turk's  Islands  are  so  named  from  a 
species  of  cactus,  called  Turk's-head,  which  has  a 
fanciful  resemblance  to  a  gray  head  swathed  in 
a  turban. 

Off  on  the  lower  verge  of  the  plateau  by  the  deep 
channel  that  separates  it  from  Cuba  is  Great  Ragged 
Island,  the  last  touched  by  Columbus  before  he 
landed  on  what  he  thought  was  Cipango,  the  realm 
of  the  Grand  Khan.  It  is  in  a  chain  of  ragged  reefs, 
and  is  more  thickly  peopled  than  the  rest  of  the 
lower  islands,  though  it  is  rather  arid  and  sandy, 
and  supports  only  a  small  population.  Another 
physical  feature  of  the  submarine  peninsula  worthy 
of  passing  notice  is  called  Salt  Key  Bank,  between 
the  Florida  Keys  and  Cuba,  lying  in  fact  on  a  sort 
of  truncated  triangular  pyramid  between  the  Straits 
of  Florida,  the  Santarem  Channel,  west  of  Andros, 
and  the  New  Bahama  Channel,  north  of  Cuba. 
Most  of  the  "  banks  "  do  not  come  to  the  surface  of 
the  water,  and  this  one  has  an  interior  depression 
five  or  six  fathoms  below  the  surface,  but  its  rim 
rises  into  the  air  in  broken  coralline  reefs  and  sand- 
hills, which  sometimes  seem  in  the  distance  to  move 
and  shift  in  the  sunlight  like  spectral  craft  under 
sail.  All  about  the  margins  and  scattered  over  the 
intermediate  spaces  of  the  Bahamas  are  strings  and 
clusters  of  rocks  and  reefs  and  lonely  islets,  with  here 
and  there  an  inhabited  space,  but  most  of  their  life 
and  activity  are  concentrated  in  about  a  dozen  of  the 
larger  islands,  along  the  two  pathways  of  navigation, 
Providence  Channel  and   Crooked   Island   Passage. 


124  ^^^   WEST  INDIES 

After  his  discovery  of  the  island  which  he  piously 
called  Holy  Saviour,  Columbus  wrote  to  his  most 
Christian  Majesty,  Ferdinand  of  Spain : 

"  This  country  excels  all  others  as  far  as  day  surpasses 
night  in  splendour.  The  natives  love  their  neighbours 
as  themselves.  Their  conversation  is  the  sweetest  imag- 
inable ;  their  faces  always  smiling  ;  and  so  gentle  and 
affectionate  are  they  that  I  swear  to  your  Highness  there 
is  not  a  better  people  in  the  world." 

Seventeen  years  later,  Governor  Ovando,  by  direct 
authority  of  this  most  Christian  Ferdinand,  sent 
kidnappers  to  capture  these  gentle  and  affectionate 
people  to  work  their  lives  out  as  slaves  in  the  mines 
of  Hispaniola.  At  first  they  were  enticed  with  the 
promise  of  being  taken  to  the  "  heavenly  shores  " 
where  their  revered  ancestors  dwelt,  and  afterwards 
they  were  hunted  with  bloodhounds.  Then  for  a 
hundred  years  and  more,  save  for  the  wandering  quest 
of  Ponce  de  Leon  for  the  miraculous  fountain  of  Be- 
mini,  which  his  successor,  Perez  de  Ortubia,  found  as 
a  purling  spring  with  no  other  virtue  than  that  of 
quenching  ordinary  thirst,  these  islands  were  left  to 
the  tireless  polyps  and  to  solitude.  In  1629  and  later 
the  British  made  some  feeble  attempts  at  settlement 
at  New  Providence,  which  the  Spaniards  baffled,  and 
in  1680  Charles  II.  assumed  to  grant  that  and  neigh- 
bouring islands  to  George,  Duke  of  Albemarle,  Wil- 
liam Lord  Craven,  Sir  George  Carteret,  John  Lord 
Berkeley,  Anthony  Lord  Ashley,  and  Sir  Peter  Colle- 
ton, as   lords  proprietors,  with  power  to  appoint  a 


THE  BAHAMAS  OR  LUCAYAN  ISLANDS      125 

governor  and  plant  and  develop  a  colony.  A  few 
respectable  families  were  brought  out ;  but,  what  with 
pirates  and  Spaniards,  the  colony  did  not  flourish, 
and  in  1703  an  expedition  from  Havana  broke  it  up. 
For  awhile  the  pirates  had  possession  of  New  Provi- 
dence, and  it  was  the  headquarters  of  "  Blackbeard  " 
when  his  depredation  upon  the  commerce  of  the 
British  colonies  cost  him  his  head.  In  1718,  some 
troops  were  sent  out  from  England  and  new  efforts 
were  made  to  colonise,  but  without  success,  and 
desolation  reigned  again,  interrupted  only  by  the 
wreckers  that  came  out  from  the  Carolina  coast  and 
lurked  among  the  passages  to  profit  by  the  disasters 
of  the  sea.  Near  the  end  of  the  revolutionary  war, 
the  Spaniards  took  possession  of  the  islands  but  did 
not  hold  them,  and  by  the  treaty  of  peace  they  were 
confirmed  to  Great  Britain,  and  a  few  years  later,  in 
1787,  the  heirs  of  the  old  "  lords  proprietors  "  were 
bought  out  at  $10,000  each,  and  the  Bahamas  be- 
came a  Crown  colony.  The  settlers  were  largely 
loyalists  and  their  slaves  from  the  United  States. 

Growth  and  progress  were  slow  and  uneventful 
before  the  civil  war,  but  during  that  struggle  Nassau 
had  a  great  "  boom  "  from  blockade  running.  It 
became  the  place  of  landing  arms  and  supplies  for 
the  Confederates  and  receiving  cotton  and  other 
cargoes  from  vessels  eluding  the  blockade,  at  Charles- 
ton, Wilmington,  and  other  Southern  ports.  The 
business  was  risky  but  enormously  profitable,  lead- 
ing to  extravagance  and  excitement  at  the  staid  little 
port  of  New  Providence.  After  the  war  was  over, 
this  flurry  subsided,  and  Nassau  became  a  winter 


126  THE   WEST  INDIES 

resort  and  a  fruit  market.  In  1866,  it  suffered  ter- 
ribly from  a  hurricane. 

At  least  four  fifths  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Ba- 
hamas are  negroes,  with  comparatively  little  inter- 
mixture of  other  blood.  Conditions  did  not  make 
their  life  so  hard  in  slav^ery  days  as  that  of  the 
slaves  in  the  British  Antilles,  and  it  has  been  little 
different  since.  The  social  distinction  between 
whites  and  blacks  is  almost  as  marked  as  ever,  the 
freedmen  have  no  political  power,  and  as  labourers 
they  are  generally  paid  by  advances  to  meet  their 
wants  of  living,  and  are  kept  in  debt  to  their  em- 
ployers; but  they  are  mostly  a  happy  and  easy- 
going lot.  Industries  are  little  developed  beyond 
the  gathering  of  sponges  and  shells  and  the  raising 
and  shipping  of  fruit.  Sisal  has  been  introduced 
from  Yucatan  and  is  raised  on  a  growing  scale,  but 
there  is  little  plantation  life.  Of  the  total  annual 
exports  of  ^124,011,  according  to  the  latest  statis- 
tics, sponges  figured  z.\.  £6'j ,^6^,  and  pineapples  at 
£22,'jZdf.  The  total  imports  the  same  year  were 
;^ 1 72, 58 1  in  value.  The  trade  is  mostly  with  the 
United  States. 

The  government  of  the  colony  is  lodged  with  a 
governor  appointed  in  England,  an  Executive  Coun- 
cil of  nine  and  a  Legislative  Council  of  nine  deriving 
their  appointments  and  authority  from  the  same 
source.  They  simply  represent  "  the  Crown." 
There  is  a  Legislative  Assembly  of  twenty-nine 
members  elected  by  the  people,  but  the  suffrage  is  so 
qualified  that  it  makes  no  trouble.  One  must  have 
an  estate  of  ^^500  to  be  eligible,  and  nobody  can  vote 


THE  BAHAMAS  OR  LUCAYAN  ISLANDS      12/ 

who  is  not  a  freeholder  or  a  payer  of  taxes  on  prop- 
erty to  the  amount  of  about  $ioo.  Few  negroes  vote, 
and  the  Assembly  is  made  up  chiefly  of  the  mer- 
chants and  property-owners  of  New  Providence. 
There  are  thirteen  parishes  in  the  colony,  but  they 
pertain  only  to  a  civil  administration  which  emanates 
from  the  central  authority.  The  English  Church 
has  been  disestablished,  and  its  membership  is 
greatly  exceeded  by  the  Methodists  and  Baptists. 
There  are  practically  no  Roman  Catholics.  There 
are  government  schools  and  a  Board  of  Education 
over  which  the  governor  presides.  Many  light- 
houses are  maintained  nowadays,  which  have  gone 
far  to  ruin  the  old  trade  of  the  wreckers,  which  be- 
came quite  legitimate,  though  subject  to  abuse, 
especially  in  the  days  when  the  escape  of  crews  with 
their  lives  forfeited  compensation  for  saving  cargoes. 
The  yearly  revenue  of  the  colony  is  about  ;^65,ooo. 

The  Caicos  and  Turk's  Islands  are  governed  by  a 
commissioner  and  a  council  of  five  as  an  appanage 
of  Jamaica. 

There  is  little  evidence  of  growth  or  advancement 
in  the  political,  social,  or  commercial  life  of  the 
Bahamas. 


CHAPTER  XII 


THE   PHYSICAL   CHARACTERISTICS   OF   CUBA 


WITH  its  western  extremity  at  Cape  Antonio 
pointing  across  the  water  toward  the  head- 
land of  Yucatan  (Cape  Catoche),  the  island  of  Cuba 
has  the  appearance  of  being  a  projection  from  the 
Mexican  peninsula;  but  the  channel  between,  one 
hundred  and  twenty  miles  wide,  has  a  depth  of 
6000  feet,  while  that  on  the  north  between  Cuba  and 
Florida,  while  it  is  of  nearly  the  same  width,  is  less 
than  a  third  as  deep.  In  remote  geological  ages,  the 
continental  connection  is  believed  to  have  existed  on 
both  sides,  but  the  fossils  of  huge  quadrupeds  of 
vast  antiquity  found  in  Cuba  are  like  those  revealed 
in  the  same  formations  in  the  United  States.  Fol- 
lowing the  dorsal  curve  of  the  island  from  Cape 
Antonio  to  the  eastern  point  at  Cape  Maisi,  Cuba 
is  nine  hundred  miles  long,  though  it  is  one  hundred 
and  forty  miles  less  measured  on  a  parallel  of  lati- 
tude. Its  width  varies  between  the  tapering  capes 
from  forty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  miles, 
but  the  average  is  about  sixty  miles.  Statistics  of 
area  from  different  sources  do  not  agree,  but  it  is 
about  45,000  square  miles  for  the  island  proper,  to 

128 


) 


PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTICS  OF  CUBA      1 29 

which  over  2000  are  to  be  added  for  the  Isle  of  Pines, 
itself  containing  over  1200  square  miles,  and  the 
thousand  and  more  of  fringing  islets  and  reefs,  a  few 
of  which  have  inhabited  spots. 

The  greater  part  of  the  area  of  Cuba  consists  of 
calcareous  formation,  similar  to  that  of  the  reefs  still 
growing  on  its  borders,  but  this  rests  in  the  uplands 
upon  an  underlying  skeleton  of  tertiary  rocks,  cov- 
ered in  part  by  diorites  and  porphyries,  and  inter- 
spersed on  the  south-eastern  coast  with  basalt  and 
trachyte.  Here  and  there  protrudes  a  primitive 
granite,  but  nowhere  is  there  sign  of  volcanic  prod- 
uct. The  highest  projection  of  the  rocky  skeleton 
is  in  that  eastern  head  of  the  island  whose  southern 
coast-line  runs  nearly  due  east  and  west  from  Cape 
Maisi  to  Cape  Cruz.  Here  is  a  well  defined  moun- 
tain range,  called  the  Sierra  Maestra,  springing 
abruptly  from  the  water's  edge  and  starting  with 
the  sharp  headland  at  Cape  Cruz,  and  rising  in  a 
series  of  terraces  to  the  crest  of  Ojo  del  Toro,  3300 
feet  high.  Farther  east  it  culminates  in  the  Pico 
Tarquino,  which  is  probably  a  corruption  of  Pico 
Turquino,  "  Blue  Peak,"  of  a  height  variously  esti- 
mated from  6900  to  8400  feet,  but  never  accurately 
measured.  From  this  height  there  is  a  precipitous 
decline  seaward,  and  a  gradual  slope  landward  in  a 
broad  plateau  which  declines  into  the  valley  of  the 
Rio  Cauto  on  the  north.  Continuing  eastward  the 
mountain  system  contracts  into  the  Sierra  del 
Cobre,  which  finally  breaks  into  the  circle  of  hills 
about  Santiago  Bay,  and  then  sinks  away  into  the 
marshy  valley  of  the  Rio  Guantanamo.     Poised  on 


I30  THE   WEST  INDIES 

the  top  of  one  of  the  ranges  of  "  Copper  [Cobre] 
Mountains  "  is  a  huge  mass  of  conglomerate,  which 
gives  to  that  peak  the  name  of  La  Gran  Piedra,  or 
Big  Rock. 

Beyond  a  wide  depression  that  lies  eastward  from 
these  lofty  sierras,  there  is  a  mountainous  region  of 
disordered  masses,  cut  into  groups  or  isolated  peaks 
by  river  valleys,  and  sometimes  culminating  in  those 
sharp  crests  called  cuchillas,  or"  knives."  One  of 
these  mountain  masses,  the  Yunque  ("  Anvil  ")  de 
Baracoa,  is  a  grand  truncated  cone  3300  feet  high. 
Turning  westward,  we  find  these  irregular  elevations 
running  parallel  to  the  northern  coast  until,  near  the 
middle  of  the  island,  the  whole  upland  structure  falls 
away  into  a  depression,  only  forty-five  miles  across 
from  coast  to  coast,  traversed  in  former  times  by  a 
trocha,  or  trail,  and  in  recent  years  by  a  railroad. 
This  is  a  central  plain  bordered  on  both  sides  by  low 
marshes.  West  of  this  depression  the  land  rises  again 
into  hills,  which  are  often  broken  by  precipices  and 
ravines  into  a  mountainous  aspect,  but  seldom  reach 
an  elevation  of  1000  feet.  There  is  a  culminating 
point  north-west  of  Trinidad,  near  the  southern 
coast,  called  the  Potrerillo,  which  is  said  to  reach  an 
altitude  of  2900  feet.  Near  the  northern  coast,  be- 
tween Matanzas  and  Havana,  the  Pan  de  Matanzas 
is  1300  feet  high,  and  west  of  Havana  there  is  a 
range,  the  Cordillera  de  los  Organos,  whose  loftiest 
height.  Pan  de  Guajaibon,  is  2000  feet.  The  ter- 
minating headland  is  north  of  the  Bay  of  Guadiana, 
and  across  that  is  a  low  peninsula  of  swamps  and 
sand-dunes  to  Cape  Antonio. 


PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTICS  OF  CUBA       I3I 

In  the  shell  of  limestone  that  covers  much  of  the 
great  island  are  many  caverns,  some  of  vast  extent, 
"  measureless  to  man,"  with  tortuous  labyrinths  and 
dark  galleries,  corridors,  and  vaults,  and  with  pools 
and  streams  into  which  the  surface  water  disappears. 
One  of  the  caves  most  visited  is  near  Matanzas;  and 
in  the  eastern  peninsula  north  of  Guantanamo  are 
those  of  Monte  Libano,  while  near  Cape  Maisi  is  a 
cavern  distinguished  for  the  prehistoric  remains 
found  therein.  There  are  also  extensive  caves  in 
the  Cubitas  Sierra  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Remedios, 
Holguin,  and  Bayamo. 

The  rivers  of  Cuba  are  mostly  insignificant  in 
length  and  volume,  flowing  north  or  south  from 
the  interior  highlands  to  the  sea.  The  largest  is 
the  Rio  Cauto,  draining  the  valley  to  the  north 
of  the  plateau  that  comes  down  from  the  Sierra 
Maestra,  and  flowing  westward  into  the  large  bay 
on  which  Manzanillo  is  situated,  the  Bajo  de  Buena 
Esperanza  (Good  Hope).  It  has  many  affluents, 
and  the  main  stream  is  one  hundred  and  thirty 
miles  long  and  navigable  for  small  craft  for  nearly 
half  its  length.  The  alluvial  deposits  brought 
down  by  the  river  have  produced  a  shifting  delta 
which  has  sometimes  caused  serious  obstruction. 
Once,  in  1616,  it  closed  the  old  mouth  and  opened 
a  new  one  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  several  vessels, 
including  a  man-of-war,  shut  in  from  the  sea. 
The  most  considerable  river  on  the  northern  coast 
is  the  Sagua  la  Grande,  a  little  west  of  the  middle 
of  the  island,  but  there  is  a  multitude  of  small 
streams  which   vary  in   volume   with    the    seasons. 


132  THE   WEST  INDIES 

The  cavernous  structure  of  the  limestone  formation 
produces  some  remarkable  effects  upon  the  water- 
flow.  There  are  rivulets  that  lose  themselves  in 
dark  underground  reservoirs,  and  after  winding 
about  and  joining  with  subterranean  afifluents, 
emerge  upon  some  declivity,  to  tumble  down  in 
picturesque  cascades  and  possibly  to  sink  out  of 
sight  again.  Twenty  miles  south-west  of  Havana 
there  is  a  beautiful  lake  of  six  square  miles'  area 
among  the  green  ridges,  called  the  Ariguanabo, 
from  which  flows  the  Rio  San  Antonio.  When  this 
stream  reaches  San  Antonio  de  los  Bafios,  it  sinks 
under  a  large  ceiba,  or  "  silk  cotton,"  tree  and  dis- 
appears, to  make  its  way  to  the  coast  unseen. 

The  Rio  Mayari,  which  flows  into  Nipe  Bay  from 
the  cuchillas  in  Santiago  province,  has  a  series  of 
three  splendid  falls,  and  the  Moa  has  on  one  of  its 
branches  a  cataract  three  hundred  feet  high,  and 
not  far  below  this  it  plunges  into  a  cave  to  reappear 
farther  down.  The  Rio  Jatibonico  del  Norte  also 
runs  part  of  its  course  through  underground  chan- 
nels, and  another  part  over  a  series  of  cascades. 
There  are  few  surface  lakes  in  the  uplands,  on 
account  of  this  propensity  of  the  water  to  run  away 
through  caves  and  gorges,  leap  down  steep  declivi- 
ties, and  hurry  away  to  the  sea.  But  in  the  low 
parts  of  the  island,  in  several  places  these  vagrant 
streams  are  checked  and  forced  to  spread  out  into 
tranquil  ponds  and  lagoons,  or  to  be  lost  in  weltering 
swamps  in  which  the  turtle  and  the  alligator  loaf 
their  lives  away.  Some  of  these  marshy  districts 
along  the  coast  contain  impenetrable  morasses  and 


PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTICS  OF  CUBA      1 33 

thickets  of  mangrove,  with  winding  passages  and 
mysterious  grottos,  amid  the  weird  decorations  of 
luxuriant  tropical  verdure  and  bloom.  The  Rio  San 
Diego  in  the  west  flows  through  that  series  of  natu- 
ral arches  called  Los  Portales,  and  several  come  down 
from  wild  gorges  through  verdant  plains  and  afford 
a  few  miles  of  navigation. 

Fully  one  half  of  the  Cuban  coast  is  fringed  with 
keys  and  reefs,  which  constitute  a  perilous  barrier 
to  navigators  who  are  not  acquainted  with  the  chan- 
nels. These  are  the  work  of  those  incessant  builders, 
the  coral  polyps,  whose  whole  process  of  construc- 
tion consists  in  unconsciously  grov/ing  and  dying  off 
age  after  age,  leaving  a  calcareous  deposit  that  ever 
climbs  toward  the  light.  Their  structures  take  a 
thousand  forms,  strange  and  grotesque,  beneath  the 
waves,  and  spread  and  coalesce  above;  and  in  the 
sun  and  air  take  on  the  vesture  of  plants  and  flowers. 
From  the  peninsula  of  Sabinal,  just  west  of  Nuevitas, 
there  is  an  outer  coast-line  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  miles,  formed  of  islets,  keys,  and  reefs,  coral 
banks  and  shallow  basins  in  which  salt  deoosits  are 
formed  by  evaporation  in  the  tropical  sun.  Here 
was  what  Columbus  called  the  "  Gardens  of  the 
King."  The  Cayo  Romano  in  this  series  is  an  isle  of 
one  hundred  and  eighty  square  miles  with  three  small 
hills  among  its  sand-dunes  and  salt  basins.  This 
outer  coast-line  is  almost  continuous,  the  land  areas 
being  considerable  and  the  intersecting  channels 
narrow;  but  extending  beyond  it  nearly  to  Matan- 
zas,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles 
more,  there  is  a  more  broken  and  irregular  chain  of 


134  THE  WEST  INDIES 

reefs  and  islets,  almost  attached  to  the  shore  at  its 
western  extremity  between  Cardenas  and  Matanzas. 
West  of  Havana  again,  from  Bahia  Honda  almost 
to  Cape  Antonio,  there  is  a  vast  coral  bed  from 
which  rise  the  calcareous  peaks  and  pinnacles  of 
another  line  of  keys  and  reefs,  one  hundred  and 
forty  miles  long. 

Off  the  southern  coast  there  are  few  outlying  reefs 
along  the  shore  from  Cape  Maisi  to  Cape  Cruz  in  the 
east,  where  the  sweep  of  the  current  from  the  Wind- 
ward Channel  is  felt,  or  at  the  western  end  of  the 
island,  where  a  similar  influence  comes  from  the  cur- 
rents of  the  Yucatan  Channel.  But  westward  from 
Manzanillo  there  are  the  Cayos  de  las  Doce  Leguas, 
or  the  "  Twelve  Leagues  of  Keys,"  with  multitu- 
dinous rocks  and  reefs  between  them  and  the  main 
shore.  Here  were  the  "  Gardens  of  the  Queen  "  of 
Columbus.  The  Isle  of  Pines  farther  west  is  on  the 
outskirts  of  a  veritable  wilderness  of  these  coral 
islands  which  includes  the  Jardines  and  the  Jardinil- 
los,  "  gardens  "  and  "  little  gardens."  The  Isle  of 
Pines  itself,  which  Columbus  called  Evangelita,  is 
divided  by  a  tortuous  passage,  la  riviere  salee,  or 
"  salt  river,"  the  section  north  of  this  being  diversified 
by  hill  and  dale,  with  the  Sierra  de  la  Cafiada,  rising 
to  a  height  of  1540  feet,  and  that  south  of  it  being 
low,  swampy,  and  full  of  quagmires  and  bog-holes. 
The  island  takes  its  name  from  the  northern  tree 
which  thrives  there  as  nowhere  else  in  the  tropics. 
Notwithstanding  the  coralline  barrier  that  guards  so 
much  of  its  coast,  Cuba  has  many  bays  and  harbours 
accessible  to  the  largest  vessels.     The  chief  ports  on 


PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTICS   OF  CUBA       1 35 

the  northern  coast  are  Bahia  Honda,  Mariel,  Ha- 
vana, Matanzas,  Cardenas,  Nuevitas,  and  Nipe ;  and 
on  the  southern  side,  Guantanamo,  Santiago  de 
Cuba,  Trinidad,  and  Cienfuegos.  While  the  general 
coast-line  of  the  island  of  Cuba  is  said  to  be  2200 
miles  in  extent,  it  stretches  to  6800  miles,  if  all  the 
indentations  and  the  contours  of  the  outlying  keys 
and  reefs  are  followed. 

What  mineral  wealth  may  be  concealed  in  the 
bowels  of  Cuba  or  within  the  interstices  of  its  rocky 
skeleton  is  scarcely  known.  The  Spanish  discover- 
ers sent  from  here  some  meagre  treasures  of  gold 
which  were  extorted  or  enticed  from  the  natives  and 
may  have  been  the  slow  accumulations  of  a  long 
time.  Gold  there  is  known  to  be  in  some  of  the 
river  beds,  and  from  those  of  the  Holguin  and  Sagua 
la  Grande  fine  samples  of  the  precious  metal  have 
been  obtained,  but  not  in  permanently  "  paying 
quantities."  Silver  ore  was  discovered  back  in 
1827  in  some  of  the  mountains  of  the  Santa  Clara 
province,  which  promised  a  rich  yield  at  first,  but 
either  it  grew  poorer  or  was  badly  worked,  for  the 
mines  were  long  ago  abandoned.  Rich  copper  de- 
posits there  are  known  to  be  in  the  Cobre  Mountains, 
and  mining  was  carried  on  profitably  there  many 
years.  The  mines  are  now  abandoned  and  filled 
with  water.  Iron  has  been  extracted  from  the  hills 
of  Juragua  near  Santiago  by  an  American  company 
with  good  returns,  notwithstanding  official  inter- 
ference and  obstruction  that  frequently  had  to  be 
bought  off.  There  is  a  variety  of  coal  widely  dis- 
tributed, which  is  so  bituminous  that  it  burns  with 


THE    WEST  INDIES 

Kerce  heat  and  leaves  little  ashes.      In  some  places 
itr'softens  to  an  asphaltic  pitch,  almost  to  petroleum. 
>'  n^    -Near  Havana  there  are  quarries  of  slate  from  which 
^  thick  slabs  are  taken  that  are  of  value  in  building, 

/and  there  are  specimens  of  marble  and  jasper  which 
take  a  high  polish. 

But  in  nearly  four  centuries  of  Spanish  possession 
there  has  been  no  systematic  exploration,  no  surveys 
or  careful  examination  of  mineral  resources,  no  en- 
couragement of  enterprise,  but  every  obstruction ; 
and  the  mountains  and  gulches  of  Cuba  are  in  their 
interior  composition  an  unknown  land.  Twenty 
miUion  acres  of  its  area  are  unreclaimed  territory, 
and  13,000,000  are  said  to  be  "  virgin  forest,"  what- 
ever virginity  in  a  forest  may  signify.  Among  the 
virgins  of  the  wood  are  huge  trees  of  mahogany, 
cedar,  and  ebony,  and  the  sabicu  and  grandilla 
peculiar  to  the  American  tropics.  It  was  the  rich 
verdure  of  the  forests,  and  the  rank  luxuriance  of 
vegetation,  which  includes  flowering  plants  to  the 
number  of  more  than  3300  actually  recorded  as  in- 
digenous to  the  soil,  which  gave  Cuba  the  title  of 
the  ' '  Pearl  of  the  Antilles. ' '  Perhaps  her  pride  and 
glory  are  the  "  feathery  palm-trees,"  of  which  thirty 
varieties  rise  "  o'er  the  smiling  land  "  ;  but  she  has  all 
the  varied  shrubs  and  herbs  that  belong  to  a  rich  soil 
under  tropic  suns.  Fruits  there  are  in  great  variety, 
of  which  the  orange  and  the  pineapple  are  the  chief ; 
pepper  and  spices  are  not  wanting,  and  farinaceous 
plants  like  the  yam,  the  potato,  and  cassava  are  plen- 
tiful; while  maize,  the  Indian  corn  that  waves  so 
luxuriantly  in  August  over  our  continent,  was  the 


PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTICS  OF  CUBA  1 37 

chief  crop  of  the  modest  agriculture  of  the  Arawak. 
That  enticing  narcotic,  tobacco,  with  which  the  gentle 
aborigines  were  wont  to  soothe  their  nerves  when 
first  intruded  upon  by  the  restless  white  men,  has 
captured  the  conqueror,  and  wide  fields  of  it  now 
draw  his  wealth  to  the  plundered  island.  The  soil, 
far  the  greater  part  of  which  still  reeks  with  its  own 
richness  without  cultivation,  has  been  generously 
receptive  of  exotic  plants,  and  the  sugar-cane  and 
coffee  of  the  East  have  flourished  in  it  as  hardly  in 
their  native  ground. 

In  quadrupeds  Cuba  was  poor  when  first  sur- 
prised into  a  consciousness  that  it  had  been  an  undis- 
covered country.  "  Guaquinaji  "  is  what  the  natives 
are  said  to  have  called  that  "  dumb  dog  "  which  so 
puzzled  the  Spaniards,  now  conjectured  to  have 
been  the  raccoon,  and  they  had  a  "  jutia,"  which 
was  much  like  a  big  rat,  but  black  of  colour  and  resi- 
dent in  holes  and  clefts  of  trees.  The  dogs  and  cats 
introduced  by  the  first  colonists  ran  wild,  and  still 
infest  the  woods,  and  there  are  some  specimens  of 
deer  of  European  origin.  Our  domestic  animals 
and  fowls  have  no  trouble  in  thriving,  but  none  of 
their  like  were  indigenous.  The  island  does  some- 
what better  in  reptiles.  There  is  a  crocodile,  or  cay- 
man, of  respectable  size,  and  many  lizards ;  one  large 
but  harmless  serpent,  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  in 
length  sometimes,  and  several  smaller  members  of 
the  family  from  which  even  paradise  was  not  exempt. 
It  is  commonly  said  that  none  are  venomous,  but  a 
vicious  red  asp  has  an  ugly  bite.  The  hideous  but 
harmless  iguana  and  the  inconstant  chameleon  are 


138  THE    WEST  INDIES 

found  here,  and  of  insects  there  is  no  end.  The 
scorpion  is  not  deadly  but  he  can  make  his  victim 
extremely  uncomfortable,  and  there  is  a  very  nasty 
spider,  while  mosquitoes  buzz  and  fireflies  flicker 
in  multitudinous  hosts.  There  is  a  "  vegetating 
bee  "  afiflicted  with  a  chronic  fungus,  a  pestilent 
jigger,  and  an  ant  that  never  takes  a  siesta.  Land 
crabs  march  in  hordes  at  certain  times  long  distances 
on  a  trocha  of  their  own.  Turtles  and  tortoises 
luxuriate  in  the  tepid  waters  and  the  sweltering  air; 
fish  roam  in  multitudes  in  the  thousand  coves  and 
crannies  of  the  shore,  and  oysters  and  others  of  the 
mollusc  kind  repose  in  soft  beds  of  mud  and  marl. 

Birds  of  the  air  are  numerous,  as  in  all  the  islands, 
and  have  their  kindred  on  both  the  northern  and  the 
southern  continent.  There  are  two  hundred  species 
now  indigenous  to  Cuba,  many  of  which  have  fine 
plumage  but  few  melodious  notes.  Among  them 
parrots  and  humming-birds  are  conspicuous.  The 
only  birds  of  prey  worth  noting  are  a  repulsive  vul- 
ture and  a  turkey  buzzard,  which  are  protected  from 
harm  because  they  act  as  scavengers  in  towns  where 
the  lazy  inhabitants  throw  out  their  refuse  and  leave 
it  to  rot  and  reek. 

Climate  has  much  to  do  with  what  the  scientific 
people  call  the  flora  and  fauna  of  the  country,  or  in 
plain  terms  with  its  plants  and  animals;  but  the 
effect  upon  its  human  inhabitants  and  its  history  is 
not  less  important.  The  climate  of  Cuba  is  neces- 
sarily that  of  the  torrid  zone,  but  climate  varies 
much  with  altitude  as  well  as  latitude.  On  the 
coasts,   where  by  far  the  larger  proportion   of  the 


PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTICS   OF  CUBA         1 39 

people  now  dwell,  it  may  be  torrid,  but  in  the  up- 
lands it  is  temperate,  and  there  are  heights  where 
frost  and  ice  are  not  unknown,  though  snow  has 
rarely  been  seen  on  the  loftiest  peaks.  It  is  com- 
mon to  divide  the  year  into  two  seasons  of  equal 
length,  the  warm  and  wet  from  May  to  October  in- 
clusive, and  the  cool  and  dry  from  November  to 
April;  but  the  rainfall  of  the  wet  season  is  irregular 
and  is  seldom  heavy  before  the  end  of  June  or  after 
the  end  of  September,  while  nearly  one  third  of  the 
aggregate  for  the  year  comes  in  showers  during 
what  is  called  the  dry  season.  The  rain,  which  is 
brought  by  the  north-east  trade-winds,  is  heaviest 
on  the  northern  coast  and  toward  the  eastern  end  of 
the  island.  The  total  fall  in  the  year  about  Havana 
is  40.5  inches,  but  the  ratio  of  humidity  in  the  at- 
mosphere is  high  a  large  part  of  the  time. 

The  temperature  even  on  the  coast  cannot  be 
called  extreme  at  any  time.  The  hottest  months 
are  July  and  August,  and  the  range  at  Havana  is 
from  76°  to  88°,  with  an  average  of  82°  on  the  scale 
of  Fahrenheit.  In  December  and  January  the  mini- 
mum is  58°  and  the  maximum  78°,  and  the  air  is 
generally  soft  and  balmy.  The  climate  is  healthful 
to  the  human  constitution,  except  in  swampy  and 
malarious  districts  where  drainage  and  cultivation 
are  alike  unknown,  and  in  cities  and  towns  where  no 
proper  attention  is  given  to  sanitary  requirements. 
There  is  nothing  like  a  troubling  and  a  distributing 
of  water  and  a  cultivation  of  the  soil  to  dispel  mala- 
rious exhalations  and  extinguish  the  germs  of  fever; 
and   in   thickly   peopled  places  health  is  largely  a 


140  THE    WEST  INDIES 

question  of  an  ample  and  wholesome  supply  of 
water  judiciously  used  for  cleanliness,  internal  and 
external.  There  is  one  effect  of  the  elements  upon 
health  and  comfort  which  cannot  be  averted  or 
avoided,  if  once  it  takes  to  the  war-path.  Hurri- 
canes sometimes  afflict  the  island  of  Cuba,  though 
not  so  frequently  as  they  scourge  Jamaica,  and  the 
Caribbees.  In  1846,  one  swept  furiously  over  the 
very  city  of  Havana,  destroying  2000  houses  and 
damaging  5000  more,  and  cutting  a  swath  of  deso- 
lation across  the  country  twenty  miles  wide. 

There  is  a  popular  territorial  division  of  Cuba 
which  relates  rather  to  its  physical  than  its  political 
aspects.  The  western  end  is  called  the  Vuelta 
Abajo,  or  the  "  bend  below,"  designated  with  refer- 
ence to  the  trend  of  the  coast-line  from  Havana. 
Eastward  of  that  to  about  the  meridian  of  Santa 
Clara  is  the  Vuelta  Arriba,  or  ' '  bend  above. ' '  Then 
comes  the  Cinco  Villas  section,  so  called  from  the 
five  ancient  towns — Trinidad,  Santo  Espiritu,  San 
Juan  de  los  Remedios,  Santa  Clara,  and  Sagua  la 
Grande.  The  large  section  from  Puerto  Principe 
east  is  the  Tierra  Adentro,  or  "  land  within." 


CHAPTER  XIII 


HISTORY   AND    SPANISH   GOVERNMENT   OF   CUBA 


COLUMBUS  visited  the  southern  coast  of  Cuba 
twice,  subsequent  to  his  first  discovery  of  the 
island  from  the  other  side.  Both  in  1494  and  in 
1502  he  explored  westward,  but  only  persevered  to 
the  Isle  of  Pines,  which  he  called  Evangelita,  and 
then  struck  south ;  and  he  died  in  the  belief  that 
what  he  had  discovered  was  a  peninsula  projecting 
from  the  Asiatic  continent.  In  1508,  Ocampo,  who 
set  out  to  examine  the  land  with  more  care,  in  view 
of  the  early  exhaustion  of  Hispaniola,  persisted  in 
his  exploration  until  he  rounded  Cape  Antonio  and 
returned  by  the  northern  coast.  It  was  in  151 1,  as 
we  have  already  noted,  that  Velasquez  and  his  three 
hundred  men  came  to  make  a  permanent  settlement 
and  landed  near  Baracoa.  In  15 15,  they  founded 
the  towns  of  Santiago  de  Cuba  and  Trinidad,  and  a 
little  later  San  Juan  de  los  Remedios  and  Santo 
Espiritu.  Among  the  companions  of  Velasquez,  as 
we  also  know,  were  Bartolome  Las  Casas,  the  cham- 
pion of  the  natives,  and  Hernando  Cortez,  who  after 
being  a  cruel  slave-driver  in  the  Cobre  mines,  sailed 

141 


142  THE    WEST  INDIES 

away  from  Santiago  to  Yucatan  with  a  part  of  Ve- 
lasquez's fleet,  to  become  the  conqueror  of  Mexico. 
At  the  time  of  this  first  invasion,  the  island  was 
very  populous  and  divided  into  nine  tribal  com- 
munities, each  under  its  own  cacique.  These  were 
rapidly  "  improved  off  the  face  of  the  earth  "  after 
the  vigorous  manner  adopted  in  Hispaniola.  The 
last  of  the  chiefs  to  hold  out,  and  the  only  one  who 
made  much  resistance,  was  Hatuei  in  the  eastern 
section  of  the  island,  who  had  heard  of  the  atrocities 
across  the  channel  and  fought  desperately.  He  was 
burned  alive  for  refusing  to  be  baptised,  be-cause  it 
would  send  him  to  the  same  heaven  where  "  good 
Spaniards  "  went.  He  preferred  to  avoid  their  com- 
pany at  the  risk  of  perpetual  burning.  The  first 
settlement  toward  the  west  was  made  on  the  south 
coast  on  Broa  Bay  east  of  Batabano,  and  called  San 
Cristobal  in  honour  of  the  discoverer ;  but  the  ground 
was  unfavourable,  and  the  settlement  was  moved 
around  to  the  north  coast  at  the  entrance  to  the 
Chorrera,  or  "  watercourse,"  where  is  now  the 
Torre  de  Chorrera,  popularly  called  the  "  Buccan- 
eers' Fort."  The  full  name  of  the  place  was  Cristo- 
bal de  la  Habana,  and  when  it  made  another  move 
eastward  and  established  itself  on  the  peninsula 
between  the  Carenas  basin  and  the  sea,  it  came  to 
be  called  simply  La  Habana,  which  the  English 
transformed  successively  into  "  Havannah,"  "  Ha- 
vanna,"  and  "  Havana."  It  has  been  sometimes 
assumed  that  this  meant  haven  in  the  original,  but 
it  meant  nothing  of  the  kind,  and  the  better  opinion 
is  that  it  is  a  corruption  of  Savannah. 


i    ' 


% 


HISTORY  AND    GOVERNMENT  OF  CUBA      143 

Columbus  had  given  the  land  which  he  discovered 
on  the  28th  of  October,  1492,  the  name  Juana,  but 
when  Ferdinand  died  it  was  called  Fernandina. 
When  the  English  deprived  Jamaica  of  the  appella- 
tion of  the  patron  saint  of  Spain,  the  memory  of  the 
king  was  displaced  by  that  of  the  saint,  and  this 
island  was  called  Santiago  for  a  time.  Then  the 
name  was  left  to  the  flourishing  town  on  the  south 
coast,  and  the  island  as  a  whole  was  named  succes- 
sively Ave  Maria  and  Alfa  y  Omega;  but  in  the  end 
the  old  native  name  for  the  central  section  got  the 
better  of  all  Spanish  designations,  though  mutilated 
to  less  than  half  its  legitimate  length.  That  name 
was  Cubanacan,  and  the  flippant  French  buccaneers 
began  to  call  the  whole  place  Coube;  and  the 
Spaniards  finally  accepted  Cuba. 

Hernando  de  Soto  was  the  first  governor  by  royal 
appointment,  and  in  1538,  before  he  started  on  his 
explorations  of  the  Gulf  coast,  he  began  the  fortifi- 
cations of  Havana  in  consequence  of  the  attack  of 
French  privateers  which  had  just  occurred.  The 
peril  from  French,  English,  and  Dutch  marauders 
of  the  sea  long  continued,  and  the  defences  were 
strengthened  from  time  to  time.  The  Castillo  del 
Morro  and  the  Castillo  de  la  Punta  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  entrance  to  the  Bay  of  Havana  were 
constructed  before  1600,  but  were  enlarged  after- 
wards. 

The  colony  did  not  advance  much  until  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Previous  to  1580, 
the  scattered  inhabitants  were  chiefly  engaged  in 
raising  cattle.     Then  tobacco  and  sugar  began  to 


144  ^-^^    WEST  INDIES 

be  cultivated  on  a  modest  scale,  and  coffee  was  in- 
troduced when  immigrants  came  from  Martinique 
in  1765.  These  Frenchmen  also  introduced  bees, 
and  wax  became  an  article  of  trade.  Plantations 
grew  slowly  for  a  long  time,  because  trade  was  dis- 
couraged by  privateers  and  buccaneers  and  the  gen- 
eral impertinence  of  Spain's  numerous  enemies  as 
well  as  by  her  own  short-sighted  policy.  There 
were  few  towns,  and  there  were  wide  wastes  of  rich 
land  without  inhabitants.  Governors  came  out 
from  Spain  and  made  a  great  parade  in  Havana 
with  their  gorgeous  state  coaches  in  the  streets  and 
their  sumptuous  barges  in  the  harbour,  and  civil  and 
military  officers  made  small  fortunes  and  went  home. 
The  meagre  annals  were  enlivened  near  the  end 
of  the  Seven  Years'  War  by  the  British  capture  of 
Havana,  Matanzas,  and  the  adjacent  territory,  and 
after  that  shaking  up  there  was  greater  progress. 
The  large  profits  of  sugar,  tobacco,  and  coffee  began 
to  be  realised,  and  the  hidalgos  of  Spain  acquired 
large  estates  and  many  slaves  and  drew  riches  from 
the  land.  Peasants  were  brought  out  from  the 
Spanish  provinces  as  colonists,  and  the  white  popu- 
lation increased.  Commerce  becoming  safer,  Havana 
grew  to  be  a  flourishing  port  in  spite  of  stupid  re- 
strictions upon  trade,  and  had  a  navy-yard  and  ship- 
building works.  In  1790,  a  really  enlightened  and 
energetic  governor  was  sent  out  in  the  person  of 
Don  Luis  Las  Casas.  He  instituted  many  public 
works  and  improvements,  promoted  education  as 
well  as  industry  and  trade,  and  gave  a  new  impulse 
to  the  life  of  the  island.     It  was  largely  due  to  him 


HISTORY  AND   GOVERNMENT  OF  CUBA       145 

that  Cuba  was  little  disturbed  by  the  commotions 
in  Haiti  after  the  French  Revolution.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Count  of  Santa  Clara,  who  continued 
his  policy  and  looked  especially  after  the  defences  of 
the  various  ports.  A  good  many  French  immigrants 
came  into  Cuba  after  the  revolution  in  Haiti  and 
contributed  to  its  material  development.  In  1808, 
after  Napoleon  had  upset  the  dynasty  in  Spain* 
every  member  of  the  Cabildo,  or  provincial  council, 
in  Cuba  took  an  oath  of  allegiance  and  fidelity  to 
the  "  legitimate  sovereign,"  which  won  for  it  the 
familiar  title  of  the  "  Ever  Faithful  Isle."  The 
French  domination  in  Spain,  nevertheless,  had  a 
good  effect,  because  it  removed  the  restrictions  upon 
trade  just  when  the  conditions  were  favourable  to  a 
development  of  the  industries  of  the  island,  and 
from  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  until 
about  1825  there  was  a  period  of  unexampled  pros- 
perity and  growth. 

After  that  the  oppressive  effects  of  the  despotic 
and  corrupt  government  of  the  colony  began  to  be 
seriously  felt.  It  had  long  been  governed  under 
the  "  Laws  of  the  Indies  "  (Las  Leyes  de  las  Indias) 
adopted  in  the  sixteenth  century  and  hardly  modi- 
fied afterwards.  A  royal  decree  defining  the  powers 
of  the  governor-general  in  1825  gave  him  the  same 
authority  as  belonged  to  the  governor  of  a  besieged 
city;  and  though  it  was  revoked  in  1870  the  auto- 
cratic power  of  the  colonial  ruler  was  hardly  miti- 
gated. The  governor-general  was  always  in  effect 
a  military  ruler,  having  the  title  of  captain-general 
and  being  a  lieutenant-general  of  the  Spanish  army. 


146  THE    WEST  INDIES 

He  was  the  representative  of  the  Crown  of  Spain 
and  responsible  only  to  the  sovereign,  and  he  was 
the  supreme  head  of  the  ecclesiastical  as  well  as 
the  civil  and  military  jurisdiction,  the  Church  being 
maintained  as  part  of  the  government  of  the  State. 
His  authority  was  virtually  arbitrary  and  unre- 
strained, and  the  manner  of  its  exercise  depended 
entirely  on  the  character  of  the  man  appointed  to 
wield  it.  There  were  six  governors  of  provinces, 
but  they,  too,  were  appointed  by  the  Crown  and 
were  military  officers  of  the  rank  of  generals,  sub- 
ject to  the  orders  of  the  captain-general.  There 
were  thirty-four  subordinate  jurisdictions,  or  cap- 
taincies, which  for  purposes  of  civil  administration 
were  under  military  officers,  though  these  were 
called  "  lieutenant-governors."  Each  town  had  an 
Ayuntamiento,  or  council,  which  chose  the  mayor, 
but  their  functions  were  purely  local,  and  even  as 
such  were  subject  to  the  overruling  power  of  the 
colonial  government. 

In  1879,  th^  I'ight  of  representation  in  the  Cortes 
at  Madrid  was  granted  as  a  measure  of  "  reform." 
The  province  of  Havana  could  send  three  senators, 
each  of  the  other  five  provinces  two,  the  archbishop 
of  Santiago  one,  the  University  of  Havana  one,  and 
the  Society  of  Friends  of  the  Country  one;  and 
there  were  to  be  thirty  members  of  the  House  of 
Deputies,  elected  and  apportioned  according  to 
population,  the  suffrage  being  qualified  by  the  pay- 
ment of  $25  a  year  in  taxes.  Not  only  was  this 
representation  in  a  hopeless  minority  at  Madrid, 
but  the  choice  of  senators  and  the  election  of  depu- 


HISTORY  AND   GOVERNMENT  OF  CUBA       I47 

ties  were  so  controlled  that  they  were  nearly  all 
natives  of  Spain  and  not  of  Cuba.  By  another 
"  reform  "  in  1895,  a  council  of  administration  was 
established  to  be  advisory  or  auxiliary  to  the  gover- 
nor-general; but  of  its  thirty  members  fifteen  were 
appointed  by  the  Crown  and  the  others  chosen  by 
controlled  elections  in  the  provinces.  Besides,  the 
governor-general  could  suspend  them  individually 
at  will  to  the  number  of  fourteen,  and  if  the  rest 
were  not  tractable  he  could  suspend  the  whole  body 
on  the  advice  of  the  "  Council  of  Authorities,"  con- 
sisting of  the  archbishop  of  Santiago,  the  bishop  of 
Havana,  the  commanding  officers  of  the  army  and 
navy,  the  chief-justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  at 
Havana,  the  attorney-general,  the  head  of  the  de- 
partment of  finance,  and  the  director  of  local  ad- 
ministration. These  all  represented  substantially  the 
same  power  as  the  governor-general  and  were 
invariably  subservient. 

There  was  an  elective  assembly  in  each  province, 
of  twelve  to  twenty  members  according  to  popula- 
tion, with  limited  functions  and  virtually  controlled 
by  the  governor,  who  could  prorogue  it  at  any  time 
and  report  his  action  to  the  governor-general,  who 
could  suspend  any  provincial  assembly  whenever  he 
saw  fit  and  report  to  the  government  at  Madrid. 
The  official  influence  over  elections  extended  even 
to  the  towns,  and  when  the  Ayuntamiento  did  not 
choose  the  right  member  for  mayor,  the  governor- 
general  could  substitute  one  of  his  own  selection. 
To  all  intents  and  purposes,  the  government  was 
autocratic  from  top  to  bottom. 


148  THE    WEST  INDIES 

The  military  jurisdiction  proper  was  divided  into 
two  departments,  with  headquarters  at  Havana  and 
Santiago,  the  former  under  the  direct  command  of 
the  captain-general,  and  the  other  subject  also  to  his 
authority  under  the  command  of  a  general  who  was 
called  the  "  Governor  of  Cuba."  There  was  also  a 
second  in  command  at  the  capital,  who  was  known 
as  "  Governor  of  Havana."  The  navy  was  also 
under  a  commanding  officer,  and  there  were  five 
stations,  Havana,  Trinidad,  San  Juan  de  los  Reme- 
dios,  Santiago,  and  Nuevitas.  The  army  in  time  of 
peace  was  about  20,000  men,  and  a  number  of  in- 
ferior gunboats  were  kept  in  Cuban  waters,  with  a 
cruiser  generally  in  Havana  harbour.  The  ecclesias- 
tical establishment  was  originally  subordinate  to  that 
of  Santo  Domingo,  but  a  bishopric  was  established 
at  an  early  date  at  Santiago,  which  had  exclusive 
jurisdiction  until  1788.  Then  the  diocese  of  Havana 
was  created,  and  in  1804  that  of  Santiago  was  ele- 
vated to  an  archbishopric.  The  Inquisition  was 
introduced  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  the  State 
religion  was  maintained  with  rigour.  No  other  was 
ever  tolerated  under  the  Spanish  sovereignty. 

The  judiciary  system  consisted  of  the  Real  Audi- 
encia  Pretorial  at  Havana,  and  two  superior  courts, 
one  at  Havana  for  the  western  provinces  and  one  at 
Puerto  Principe  for  the  two  eastern  provinces.  The 
Real  Audiencia  acted  as  an  advisory  Council  of 
State.  There  were  twenty-six  judicial  districts, 
each  with  an  alcalde  mayor,  and  there  were  auxiliary 
delegates,  or  alcaldes,  acting  as  local  magistrates. 
All  the  higher  offices  and  the  greater    number  of 


HISTORY  AND   GOVERNMENT  OF  CUBA      I49 

minor  places  were  held  by  Spaniards,  most  of  whom 
had  for  years  been,  justly  or  unjustly,  charged  with 
corruption. 

The  combination  of  civil,  military,  naval,  ecclesi- 
astical, and  judicial  power  was  virtually  swayed  by 
the  governor-general,  who  represented  the  royal 
authority  at  Madrid,  and  exercised  its  prerogatives 
in  the  colony  without  the  restraints  of  constitutional 
limitation,  or  of  responsibility  to  anybody  but  a 
sovereign  who  rarely  interfered  except  to  substitute 
one  governor-general  for  another,  being  therein  re- 
stricted to  the  lieutenant-generals  of  the  army. 
Even  the  educational  system,  such  as  it  was,  was 
under  the  direction  of  the  governor-general  and  the 
rector  of  the  university,  who  was  also  appointed  by 
the  Crown  and  always  sent  out  from  Spain.  The  uni- 
versity was  established  at  Havana  in  1721  by  the 
' '  Order  of  Preaching  Friars  ' '  under  authority  of  the 
Pope,  and  was  extended  and  more  hberally  endowed 
by  Governor-General  Las  Casas,  There  was  a  col- 
legiate institution  in  each  of  the  six  provinces,  with 
power  to  confer  the  degree  of  bachelor,  or  licentiate. 
There  was  a  system  of  public  schools,  and  elementary 
education  was  made  compulsory  by  law  in  1880;  but 
the  ratio  of  illiteracy  continued  to  be  very  high. 

The  salary  of  the  governor-general  was  $50,000 
a  year,  that  of  each  governor  of  a  province  $12,000, 
and  the  bishop  of  Havana  and  archbishop  of  San- 
tiago each  received  $18,000  a  year.  The  expenses 
of  every  branch  of  administration,  including  that  of 
the  Church,  were  charged  upon  the  revenues  of  the 
island,  which  also  had  to  pay  the  cost  of  keeping 


I50  THE    WEST  INDIES 

itself  in  subjection,  including  all  the  debts,  honest 
and  otherwise,  incurred  in  the  process.  Besides 
this,  about  $6,000,000  of  revenue  per  year  used  to 
be  paid  to  the  home  government.  While  the  taxes 
would  have  been  extremely  heavy  if  the  proceeds 
had  gone  wholly  to  meet  legitimate  expenditures, 
the  corrupt  exactions  of  collectors  and  the  pecula- 
tions of  public  officers  notoriously  added  greatly  to 
the  burden.  The  people,  most  of  whom  were  de- 
prived of  all  political  power,  were  forced  to  support 
a  horde  of  Spanish  office-holders  and  to  enrich  some 
of  them,  under  a  system  which  tended  to  crush  the 
life  out  of  productive  industry  and  seriously  ham- 
pered trade  with  the  rest  of  the  world. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

PROVINCES,    CITIES,    AND   TOWNS   OF   CUBA 

THE  six  provinces,  or  political  divisions,  of  Cuba 
are  transverse  sections  of  the  long  island,  four 
of  which  are  regarded  as  western  and  two  eastern. 
Statistics  of  the  island  are  uncertain,  as  no  accurate 
surveys  have  been  made,  and  the  latest  census, 
which  was  taken  in  1887,  is  not  altogether  trust- 
worthy. The  figures  here  given  of  the  area  and 
population  of  the  several  provinces  and  the  popu- 
lation of  cities  and  towns  are  taken  from  the  most 
authoritative  sources.  The  name  by  which  each 
province  is  designated  is  the  same  as  that  of  its 
chief  town.  That  at  the  western  end  of  the  island 
is  Pinar  del  Rio,  area  5950  square  miles,  population 
182,204.  It  contains  most  of  the  Vuelta  Abajo  sec- 
tion, which  is  famous  for  its  fine  tobacco.  The 
next,  as  we  proceed  eastward,  is  Havana,  whose  area 
is  only  3420  square  miles,  but  which  has  a  popula- 
tion of  435,896,  nearly  half  of  which  is  contained  in 
the  capital  city.  It  includes  the  Isle  of  Pines,  which 
remained  uninhabited  until  1828,  when  a  military 
station  was  established  there.  In  recent  years  it 
has  become  a  health  resort  for  consumptives. 

151 


152  THE    WEST  INDIES 

The  province  of  Matanzas,  with  an  area  of  3380 
square  miles  and  283,120  inhabitants,  is  the  only  one 
that  has  practically  no  southern  coast,  the  next  prov- 
ince of  Santa  Clara  being  allowed  to  extend  a  narrow 
wedge  below  it  and  include  the  great  marshy  region 
of  the  peninsula  of  Zapata  ("  the  Shoe  ").  Matan- 
zas includes  a  large  part  of  the  richest  sugar  district, 
and  is  agriculturally  the  most  highly  developed 
section  of  the  island.  Santa  Clara  includes  the  old 
Cinco  Villas,  and  has  an  area  of  9210  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  321,397.  It  is  the  scene  of  most 
of  the  earliest  settlements  of  the  island,  and  contains 
some  of  the  largest  sugar  plantations  and  mills.  It 
also  produces  a  great  variety  of  fruits,  and  is  be- 
lieved to  be  rich  in  minerals.  The  available  seaports 
are  on  the  southern  coast,  whereas  farther  west  they 
are  on  the  northern.  These  four  western  provinces 
contain  rather  more  than  half  the  length  of  the 
island,  but  much  less  than  half  its  area. 

A  little  east  of  the  boundary  of  Santa  Clara  is  the 
low  and  narrow  section  which  practically  divides 
the  island  of  Cuba  into  two  parts.  A  sinking  of 
three  hundred  feet  would  actually  separate  it  into 
two  distinct  islands.  Here  is  the  old  trocha,  which 
has  been  transformed  into  a  military  railroad,  and 
near  by  is  the  dividing  line  of  the  two  dioceses. 
The  province  in  which  this  depression  lies  is  officially 
called  Puerto  Principe,  though  it  is  often  referred 
to  as  Camaguey.  It  is  bordered  by  lines  of  reefs  on 
both  sides,  and  its  only  good  seaport  is  Nuevitas 
on  the  northern  coast.  A  large  part  of  it  is  moun- 
tainous and  covered  with  forests,  and  it  contains  the 


PROVINCES,  CITIES,  AND  TOWNS   OF  CUBA      1 53 

great  caverns  which  are  the  wonder  of  the  few  who 
have  explored  them.  With  an  area  of  I2,9(X)  square 
miles,  Puerto  Principe  province  has  less  than  70,000 
inhabitants,  and  has  been  the  favourite  scene  of  rev- 
olutionary uprisings  on  account  of  the  almost  inac- 
cessible fastnesses  of  its  mountains.  It  has  little  in 
the  way  of  systematic  industries,  and  its  people  are 
engaged  chieflly  in  getting  out  some  of  its  fine  cabi- 
net timber  and  preserving  guava.  The  largest  of  all 
the  provinces  in  extent  is  that  of  Santiago  de  Cuba 
in  the  east,  which  has  an  area  of  about  14,000  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  230,000.  It  contains  the 
mountains  from  which  copper  and  iron  are  obtained, 
and  has  available  harbours  on  both  coasts — Mayari, 
Gibara,  and  Baracoa  on  the  north,  and  Guantanamo, 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  and  Manzanillo  on  the  south. 

Places  are  sometimes  referred  to  as  being  in  certain 
"  districts,"  meaning  the  judicial  districts.  These 
are  Guanajay,  Guane,  Pinar  del  Rio,  and  San  Cristo- 
bal in  the  province  of  Pinar  del  Rio;  Bejucal,  Guan- 
abacoa,  Guines,  Havana,  Jaruco,  Marianao,  and 
San  Antonio  de  los  Banos  in  Havana  province ;  Al- 
fonso XII.,  Cardenas,  Colon,  and  Matanzas  in  the 
province  of  Matanzas;  Cienfuegos,  Juan  de  los 
Remedios,  and  Sagua  la  Grande  in  Santa  Clara; 
Moron  and  Puerto  Principe  in  Puerto  Principe;  and 
Baracoa,  Guantanamo,  Holguin,  Manzanillo,  and 
Santiago  de  Cuba  in  Santiago.  They  are  designated 
by  the  names  of  towns  in  which  the  court  proceed- 
ings are  held  and  the  alcalde  mayor  has  his  seat. 

The  one  great  city  of  Cuba,  and  indeed  of  all 
the  West  Indies,  is  Havana.     At  the  time  of  the 


154  ^^^    WEST  INDIES 

last  census  its  population  was  198,720,  but  it  has 
been  lately  estimated  at  250,000  or  more.  After 
two  ineffectual  attempts  to  found  a  western  capital, 
this  unrivalled  location  was  fixed  upon  in  15 19,  in  a 
deep  and  sheltered  bay,  at  the  natural  starting-point 
of  commerce  from  the  western  world  in  the  early 
days,  which  led  to  its  being  called  "  Llave  del  Nuevo 
Mundo,"  "  Key  of  the  New  World."  The  city  is  on 
a  peninsula  thrust  into  the  bay  from  the  west,  with 
a  deep  channel  about  a  thousand  feet  wide  on  its 
northern  side.  This  channel  is  strongly  fortified 
and  capable  of  being  made  impenetrable.  At  its 
entrance  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  city  is  the 
Castillo  del  Morro,  or  Morro  Castle,  built  in  1589 
and  afterwards  strengthened,  and  on  the  city  side  is 
the  Castillo  de  la  Punta,  or  Castle  of  the  Point,  of 
the  same  date.  On  the  heights  to  the  east  of  the 
Morro  is  the  Castillo,  or  Fortress,  of  Cabafla,  over- 
looking the  channel  and  the  city  with  its  guns,  and 
defended  on  the  seaward  side  of  the  narrow  penin- 
sula on  which  these  structures  stand  by  three  bas- 
tions. Farther  within  the  bay  on  the  same  side  are 
the  Casa  Blanca  and  Fort  San  Diego,  and  at  the  end 
of  the  western  arm  of  the  bay  on  the  city  side  is  the 
Castle  of  Santo  Domingo  de  Atares,  while  on  the 
heights  back  of  the  city  landward  is  the  Castillo  del 
Principe  with  its  adjoining  camp  and  batteries;  and 
on  the  shore  west  of  the  channel  entrance  is  the  Santa 
Clara  battery,  so  called  from  the  governor-general 
who  built  it  at  the  end  of  the  last  century.  The 
harbour  itself  is  spacious  and  deep,  though  fouled 
for  generations  by  the  drainage  of  the  city.     There 


PROVINCES,  CITIES,  AND  TOWNS   OF  CUBA       1 55 

is  a  fine  lighthouse,  some  good  wharves,  and  a  large 
floating  dock. 

The  city  of  Havana  has  an  exceedingly  picturesque 
appearance  from  the  bay,  its  low  buildings  being 
mostly  of  white  and  yellow  stone,  or  stuccoed  over 
and  tinted  with  pink,  blue,  and  green,  but  the 
background  is  somewhat  flat  and  tame.  In  the  old 
time  of  peril  from  prowling  enemies,  a  wall  was  built 
about  the  city,  and  though  this  was  demolished  in 
1863  the  intramural  and  extramural  city  are  still 
spoken  of.  The  former  is  the  old  part,  and  its 
streets  are  narrow,  with  sidewalks  that  afford  a  foot- 
ing for  but  a  single  line  of  passers,  and  on  a  close 
view  it  seems  shabby,  dirty,  and  overcrowded.  The 
chief  public  buildings  are  the  great  yellow  palace  of 
the  governor-general  on  the  Plaza  de  Armas,  the 
bishop's  palace,  the  university,  the  cathedral  built  by 
the  Jesuits  in  1724  and  containing  within  its  unat- 
tractive walls  some  richly  frescoed  spaces  and  costly 
altars,  the  old  church  of  San  Juan  de  Dios  dating  from 
1573,  and  that  of  San  Felipe,  which  has  a  large  library. 
The  chief  monuments  are  the  structure  which  long 
purported  to  contain  the  remains  of  Columbus,  and 
the  statue  of  Ferdinand  VII.  on  the  Plaza  de  Armas. 
The  Prado  or  Paseo  Isabel  is  a  fine  boulevard  laid 
out  in  the  last  century,  with  the  little  Parque  Cen- 
tral at  its  beginning.  The  Paseo  Tacon,  the  gardens 
of  Los  Molinos,  with  their  grand  avenues  of  palm, 
the  botanical  gardens,  and  spacious  suburban  villas 
form  attractive  features  of  the  city.  There  are  also 
three  theatres  and  a  grand  opera  house;  a  number 
of  good  hotels  and  many  lively  caf^s.      But  Havana 


156  THE    WEST  INDIES 

is,  in  the  main,  a  commercial  town  and  the  natural 
seat  of  a  great  trade,  hitherto  repressed  by  a  nar- 
row policy.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  great  tobacco 
industry,  and  is  the  chief  port  of  entry  of  the  island. 

There  are  three  good  harbours  on  the  north  coast 
of  Pinar  del  Rio  west  of  Havana.  These  are  Mariel, 
Cabaflas,  and  Bahia  Honda,  but  they  are  compara- 
tively little  used,  and  the  most  flourishing  towns 
of  this  province  are  inland — Pinar  del  Rio  in  the 
centre  of  the  tobacco  district,  with  a  population  of 
20,000,  and  Guanajay,  which  is  surrounded  by  coffee 
plantations.  At  San  Diego  in  the  Organos  Hills 
are  mineral  springs  much  resorted  to  in  summer. 
Guanabacoa,  a  city  of  30,000  inhabitants,  is  on  a 
commanding  height  just  south-east  of  Havana.  And 
in  the  interior  of  the  same  province,  farther  to  the 
southeast  and  connected  with  the  great  seaport  by 
rail,  is  Guines,  the  chief  agricultural  centre  of  this 
section.  On  the  southern  coast,  as  a  stepping-place 
to  the  Isle  of  Pines,  is  the  little  port  of  Batabano. 
Regla,  a  suburban  place  across  the  bay  from  Havana, 
has  a  famous  bull-ring. 

The  second  city  in  Cuba,  and  next  to  Havana  in 
importance  as  a  seaport,  is  Matanzas,  fifty-four  miles 
east  of  the  capital  by  waggon  road  and  seventy-four 
miles  by  rail.  It  was  founded  in  1693  by  immigrants 
from  the  Canary  Islands  on  a  magnificent  bay  be- 
tween the  rivers  San  Juan  and  Yumuri,  across  both 
of  which  it  has  grown  in  later  times,  the  section  to 
the  north  of  the  Yumuri  being  called  Versalles  and 
that  to  the  south  of  the  San  Juan,  Pueblo  Nuevo. 
The  whole  city  has  now  nearly  90,000  inhabitants. 


F.1.1]. 


PROVINCES,  CITIES,  AND  TOWNS  OF  CUBA      1 5/ 

Its  original  name  was  San  Carlos  Alcazar;  that  by 
which  it  is  now  called,  meaning  "  butcheries,"  is  an 
ill-omened  reminiscence  of  a  massacre  of  the  abor- 
igines in  this  neighbourhood.  There  is  a  large 
public  square,  garnished  with  a  statue  of  Ferdinand 
VIL,  and  having  the  commandant's  residence  on 
one  side,  and  a  beautiful  park  up  the  valley  of  the 
Yumuri.  The  Estaban  Theatre  is  the  finest  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  the  Empresa  Academy  is  said  to 
be  one  of  the  best  educational  institutions.  The 
Casino  and  Lyceum  are  attractive  buildings,  and 
the  Boulevard  de  Santa  Cristina  is  a  handsome 
thoroughfare.  Matanzas  is  chiefly  engaged  in  the 
business  of  exporting  sugar  and  molasses,  which  has 
suffered  much  in  recent  years.  About  two  and  a 
half  miles  east  of  the  city  and  opening  on  the  bay 
are  the  beautiful  stalactite  caves  of  Bellamar,  much 
used  for  bathing,  the  intrusive  sharks  being  excluded 
by  iron  gratings. 

Thirty  miles  farther  east  in  the  Matanzas  province 
is  the  thriving  port  of  Cardenas.  Though  founded 
in  1828,  it  has  grown  to  a  city  of  more  than  20,000 
inhabitants,  and  is  handsomely  built  and  actively 
engaged  in  manufactures  and  trade,  in  which  Ameri- 
cans take  so  large  a  part  that  it  has  been  called  the 

American  city."  Its  spacious  harbour  is  sheltered 
from  the  north-west  winds  by  the  Punta  Icacos,  and 
it  is  connected  by  railway  with  Matanzas  and  Ha- 
vana and  with  all  the  important  interior  towns  as 
far  as  Santa  Clara.  Its  trade  is  mainly  in  sugar, 
molasses,  rum,  and  tobacco.  The  centre  of  the  sugar 
industry  in  the  interior  is    Colon,    formerly  called 


158  THE    WEST  INDIES 

Nueva  Bermeja,  which  has  a  population  of  about 
6000. 

As  we  reach  the  province  of  Santa  Clara  we  find 
the  industrial  and  commercial  activity  shifted  to  the 
southern  side  of  the  island,  with  its  chief  outlets  at 
Cienfuegos  and  Trinidad.  Cienfuegos  is  on  a  splen- 
did harbour,  which  was  visited  by  Columbus,  and 
surveyed  by  Ocampo,  and  of  which  Herrera  said  it 
was  "  unrivalled  in  the  world  ;"  and  yet  no  town  was 
established  there  until  18 19,  when  a  French  planter 
named  Louis  Clouet  from  Louisiana  came  with 
about  forty  families,  partly  from  Gascony  and  the 
Basque  country,  and  partly  refugees  from  Santo 
Domingo.  The  name  was  that  of  a  Cuban  governor, 
and  the  place  has  grown  to  a  flourishing  city  of 
27,000  inhabitants,  altogether  outstripping  the  an- 
cient port  of  Trinidad,  on  account  of  the  superiority 
of  the  harbour  and  the  position  of  the  town  directly 
upon  it.  Trinidad  is  a  little  back  from  the  coast, 
some  forty  miles  farther  east,  and  is  approached 
through  three  small  bays.  Between  the  two  towns 
is  a  district  where  fine  tobacco  is  grown,  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  the  Vuelta  Abajo.  Santo  Espiritu 
and  San  Juan  de  los  Remedios  in  the  interior  are 
chiefly  noted  as  two  of  the  old  Cinco  Villas.  The 
latter  was  originally  established  on  the  north  coast, 
near  where  the  port  of  Caibarien  now  is,  but  the 
settlers  were  driven  inland  by  the  buccaneers  and 
founded  Santa  Clara  in  1690,  the  present  capital  of 
the  province,  which  has  a  population  of  35,000  and 
is  the  centre  of  a  region  of  considerable  mineral 
wealth.     Sagua  la  Grande,  one  of  the  "  five  cities," 


PROVINCES,  CITIES,  AND  TOWNS  OF  CUBA       I  59 

is  near  the  northern  coast  on  a  river  of  the  same 
name,  twelve  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  connected 
with  Cienfuegos,  Santa  Clara,  and  Havana  by  rail 
and  is  a  place  of  some  importance,  with  a  population 
of  about  14,000.  This  is  where  the  auriferous  sands 
of  the  river  were  first  worked,  but  the  yield  of  gold 
was  so  scanty  that  the  effort  to  collect  it  was  long 
ago  given  up. 

The  only  towns  in  the  province  of  Puerto  Prin- 
cipe worth  noticing  are  Nuevitas  and  the  capital, 
Puerto  Principe,  and  the  former  is  important  only 
as  the  seaport  of  the  latter,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  railroad.  The  harbour  of  Nuevitas  is  in 
a  deep  bay,  sheltered  by  promontories  and  entered 
by  a  narrow  and  winding  channel.  It  was  visited 
by  Columbus,  who  called  it  Puerto  Principe.  The 
name  was  inappropriately  transferred  to  the  interior 
town,  founded  on  the  site  of  a  native  village  called 
Camaguey.  The  native  name  still  clings  to  the 
place.  Puerto  Principe  is  on  a  broad  plain  midway 
between  the  two  coasts,  and  has  a  population  of 
about  45,000. 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  was  founded  by  Diego  Velasquez  in 
151 5,  three  years  after  the  first  settlement  of  the 
Spaniards  from  Santo  Domingo  at  Baracoa ;  and 
for  some  years  it  was  the  capital  of  the  colony. 
It  now  has  a  population  of  over  70,000,  and  ranks 
third  in  commercial  importance  among  the  cities 
and  seaports  of  Cuba.  It  is  on  a  bay  which  is 
reached  by  a  winding  channel  only  one  hundred  and 
eighty  yards  wide  in  its  narrowest  part.     The  bay 


l6o  THE    WEST  INDIES 

itself  is  about  six  miles  deep  by  two  wide,  and  the 
city  lies  upon  its  inmost  shore.  The  entrance  is 
guarded  by  the  Morro  Castle,  a  picturesque  fortifi- 
cation on  a  promontory  to  the  right,  built  by  Gov- 
ernor Pedro  de  la  Rocca  in  1640,  and  the  Zocapa 
Castle  on  a  corresponding  height  opposite.  A  little 
way  up  the  channel  is  the  star-shaped  Estrella  bat- 
tery on  the  right,  and  a  little  farther  yet  on  the  left 
the  Cayo  Smith  battery.  At  the  turning  into  the 
bay  there  is  another  defence  on  the  right  in  the  Punta 
Gorda  battery.  These  works  have  been  proved  to 
be,  under  Spanish  command,  more  formidable  in  ap- 
pearance than  in  reality,  but  the  harbour  might  be 
made  impenetrable;  and  its  commercial  value  could 
be  greatly  increased  by  dredging,  as  it  has  been 
allowed  to  shoal  with  silt  and  foul  deposits  from 
the  city. 

Along  the  bay  front  is  the  Alameda,  with  shady 
palms  and  other  trees,  and  a  botanical  garden  at  its 
eastern  end,  and  from  this  the  blue-,  yellow-,  and 
pink-tinted  houses,  interspersed  with  gardens,  rise 
in  terraces  within  an  amphitheatre  of  hills,  having 
a  bold  background  of  mountains  in  the  distance. 
On  close  inspection  much  that  is  shabby  and  dirty 
appeared  in  the  city  in  the  lazy  Spanish  days,  and 
the  atmosphere  stagnated  in  the  encircling  hills  in 
most  insalubrious  fashion  in  the  hot  and  humid 
season.  But  the  old  cathedral,  built  in  1522,  was 
an  attractive  structure,  and  the  military  barracks 
and  hospital  were  objects  of  languid  interest.  In 
its  quiet  way  Santiago  was  a  centre  of  commercial 
activity,  whence  was  shipped  more  or  less  of  tobacco, 


PROVINCES,  CITIES,  AND  TOWNS  OF  CUBA      l6l 

coffee,  cocoa,  hides,  and  other  products  of  the  region. 
It  is  between  the  copper  mines  at  Cobre  and  the 
iron-works  at  Juragua,  but  the  iron  company  has  its 
own  wharf  at  Daiquiri  on  the  outer  coast.  In  the 
outskirts  about  the  old  Indian  village  of  El  Caney, 
or  "  The  Grave,"  suburban  residences  of  the  mer- 
chants have  been  built. 

The  only  other  important  seaport  of  Santiago 
province  is  Manzanillo  on  the  bay  of  Buena  Esper- 
anza  at  the  delta  of  the  Rio  Cauto.  It  has  a  popu- 
lation of  more  than  20,000,  and  in  the  region  back 
of  it  much  sugar  and  tobacco  are  raised,  and  the  de- 
scendants of  the  bees  which  the  French  immigrants 
brought  here  produce  wax  and  honey  for  export. 
In  the  basin  of  the  Cauto  is  the  old  town  of  Baya- 
mo.  Farther  inland  toward  the  northern  coast  is 
Holguin.  Some  thirty  miles  east  of  the  entrance 
to  Santiago  Bay  is  the  broader  and  more  open  basin 
of  Guantanamo,  which  is  rendered  too  shallow  for 
much  use  by  deposits  from  the  short  streams  that 
come  down  from  the  Santa  Catalina  district.  Gibara 
on  the  north  coast  has  an  excellent  harbour  admit- 
ting vessels  of  sixteen  feet  draught,  and  this  advan- 
tage has  given  it  a  considerable  trade  in  sugar,  coffee, 
tobacco,  fruits,  and  ornamental  woods.  According 
to  the  best  authority,  it  was  here  that  Columbus 
made  his  first  landing  on  the  coast  of  Cuba,  though 
others  give  the  honour  to  Sabinal  Bay  where  the 
port  of  Nuevitas  is  situated. 

We  may  as  well  terminate  our  notice  of  towns 
where  Velasquez  began,  when  he  came  to  establish 
settlements  on  the  island  of  Cuba.       This  was  at 


1 62  THE    WEST  INDIES 

Baracoa,  which  is  on  the  northern  coast  only  a  few 
miles  from  Cape  Maisi.  It  is  on  the  Puerto  Santo 
of  Columbus,  but  though  it  had  an  early  and  fav- 
ourable start  it  was  not  well  located  for  growth, 
and  at  the  age  of  nearly  four  hundred  years  it  has 
little  more  than  5000  inhabitants,  mostly  engaged 
in  selling  cocoa  and  bananas,  so  far  as  they  have 
anything  to  do.  Near  by  are  the  wonderful  stalac- 
tite caves  containing  human  fossils,  and  the  road 
from  Baracoa  to  Santiago  over  the  crests  of  the 
Cuchillas  is  described  as  one  of  the  most  romantic 
and  picturesque  conceivable.  There  is  a  monument 
of  the  olden  time  in  the  ruins  of  Velasquez's  house 
at  Baracoa. 


CHAPTER  XV 


SOCIAL  AND   ECONOMIC   CONDITIONS   IN   CUBA 


THE  industrial  and  commercial  development  of 
Cuba  has  been  almost  wholly  a  matter  of  the 
present  century.  The  first  census  was  taken  in  1774, 
and  gave  the  population  as  171,620,  fully  one  half 
of  which  consisted  of  negro  slaves.  In  1791  it  had 
increased  to  only  272,000,  but  by  1811  it  had  leaped 
to  600,000.  Under  the  policy  by  which  Spain  strove 
to  monopolise  the  trade  of  her  colonies  and  draw 
their  resources  to  herself,  there  was  no  chance  for 
healthy  growth.  Even  the  negroes  did  not  thrive, 
and  the  slaves  were  constantly  recruited  by  importa- 
tion to  prevent  their  dying  out.  The  plantations 
were  in  the  hands  of  a  few  owners,  and  the  peasant 
colonists  increased  slowly.  The  first  real  impulse 
came  wnth  the  French  immigrants  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  coffee  culture.  Though  there  was  a  begin- 
ning of  this  near  the  middle  of  the  last  century, 
especially  just  after  the  English  occupation,  its  main 
volume  followed  the  disturbances  in  Haiti  conse- 
quent upon  the  French  Revolution.  Still  more 
beneficial  was  knocking  off  the  shackles  of  trade 
when  Napoleon  overturned  the  Bourbon  dynasty  of 

163 


164  THE    WEST  INDIES 

Spain,  though  ihese  were  subsequently  replaced  in 
part. 

Of  the  600,000  inhabitants  in  181 1,  about  274,000 
were  whites,  212,000  slaves,  and  1 14,000  free  persons 
of  colour.  The  first  quarter  of  this  century  was  a 
period  of  great  prosperity,  and  coffee  plantations 
were  especially  profitable.  That  was  the  leading 
staple,  and  the  production  reached  over  90,000,000 
pounds,  valued  at  $20,000,000,  in  one  year.  The 
fall  in  price  and  the  advance  of  sugar  to  the  position 
of  the  most  profitable  crop  caused  coffee  to  fall 
behind,  and  in  recent  years  that  interest  has  been 
comparatively  unimportant.  The  population  of  the 
island  reached  900,000  in  1841,  and  the  relative 
increase  was  greatest  with  the  white  race,  which 
then  included  418,000  of  the  inhabitants  to  152,000 
free  coloured  persons  and  330,000  slaves.  The 
changing  ratio  continued  down  to  the  disturbances 
of  the  last  war.  The  population  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  insurrection  was  calculated,  upon  the  normal 
increase  after  the  census  of  1887,  to  be  about  1,650,- 
000,  and  of  this  950,000  was  said  to  be  made  up  of 
white  Creoles,  that  is,  native  descendants  of  Euro- 
pean settlers;  500,000  were  negroes,  and  150,000 
Spaniards  of  European  birth.  There  were  also  about 
50,000  Chinamen.  The  Mongolians  were  mostly 
brought  as  coolies  for  plantation  work  after  the 
abolition  of  slavery.  The  density  of  population 
differed  widely  in  the  different  provinces,  averaging 
2.10  per  square  kilometre  in  Puerto  Principe,  7.75  in 
Santiago,  15.09  in  Pinar  del  Rio,  15.34  in  Santa 
Clara,  30.59  in  Matanzas,  and  52.49  in  Havana. 


COURTYARD   OF   CUBAN   HOUSE. 


SOCIAL   AND  ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS        165 

The  general  classification  of  the  population  was 
into  Spaniards,  who  were  recent  immigrants  or  tem- 
porary residents,  and  who  largely  held  the  offices  and 
employments  of  the  government,  including  those  of 
the  Church,  but  some  of  whom  owned  plantations 
or  were  engaged  in  business  in  the  larger  cities ; 
native  white  Cubans,  who  constituted  the  bulk  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  rural  parts  of  the  island  and 
the  small  towns,  and  carried  on  the  minor  industries 
and  trade  ;  the  negroes,  who  were  formerly  slaves  or 
the  children  of  such,  still  employed  chiefly  on  the 
plantations  and  in  the  sugar  mills  in  a  condition  of 
virtual  peonage,  and  enjoying  little  more  political  or 
social  advantage  than  before  emancipation ;  and 
finally  the  mulattoes  and  mixed  breeds, — generally 
spoken  of  in  all  the  West  Indies  as  "coloured,"  in 
contradistinction  from  "  blacks," — whose  position 
was  intermediate  between  the  Creoles  and  negroes. 
The  Spaniards  insisted  upon  a  certain  exclusiveness, 
and  social  as  well  as  political  superiority,  while  the 
native  Cubans  cherished  a  pride  of  their  own,  which 
was  strongly  tinged  with  insular  patriotism. 

The  revolution  of  1895-98  broke  up  the  normal 
conditions  of  Cuban  life  and  society,  and  reduced  the 
population  by  a  number  variously  estimated  from 
300,000  to  600,000 ;  and  it  is  necessary  for  the  present 
to  deal  with  those  conditions  as  they  were  before 
the  outbreak.  It  is  generally  stated  that  about  one 
half  of  the  area  of  the  island  was  still  covered  with 
forest  and  other  wild  growths,  though  not  more  than 
one  fifth  consisted  of  mountain  and  swamp  land 
that  was  not  susceptible  of  cultivation.     Much  more 


1 66  THE    WEST  INDIES 

than  one  half  of  the  remainder,  consisting  of  fertile 
plains,  hill  slopes,  and  valleys,  was  given  up  to 
pasturage,  supporting  not  a  tenth  of  the  cattle  that 
might  be  raised,  and  yielding  not  a  hundredth  of 
the  return  that  might  be  derived  from  it  by  culti- 
vation. 

Lack  of  trustworthy  statistics  forbids  positive 
statement,  but  the  area  of  the  island  is  approxi- 
mately 30,000,000  acres,  and  one  authority  puts  the 
cultivated  land  at  one  fourth  of  the  whole,  while 
another  says  it  does  not  exceed  2,000,000  acres  in 
all.  What  is  actually  known  is  that  little  had  been 
done  to  develop,  or  even  to  ascertain,  the  mineral  re- 
sources of  the  island  or  to  utilise  the  known  resources 
of  the  forests  in  valuable  timber,  of  which  there  are 
said  to  be  forty  varieties ;  that  there  were  vast  areas 
of  rich  land  uncultivated  and  unoccupied;  and  that 
the  scale  of  production  even  for  the  great  staples 
was  far  below  what  it  might  be.  While  1000  miles 
of  railroad  have  been  built  since  the  beginning  of 
construction  in  1837,  ^"<^  the  lines  connect  Havana 
with  inland  points  in  the  west  and  reach  east  as  far 
as  Santa  Clara  and  Remedies,  and  local  lines  pene- 
trate a  short  distance  from  all  the  principal  seaports, 
the  system  is  very  incomplete,  and  in  all  the  eastern 
half  of  the  island  merely  rudimentary.  There  are  a 
few  good  waggon  roads  on  what  used  to  be  the  main 
lines  of  travel,  but  for  the  most  part  the  means  of 
internal  communication  are  wretchedly  deficient. 

In  spite  of  all  drawbacks,  the  agricultural  produc- 
tion in  1892  is  said  to  have  amounted  to  $1,000,000,- 
000  in  value.     The  sugar  plantations,  which  were 


SOCIAL   AND  ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS        1 6/ 

largely  in  the  provinces  of  Havana,  Matanzas,  and 
Santa  Clara,  were  said  to  cover  an  area  of  2600  square 
miles,  and  to  yield  one  fourth  of  the  world's  supply 
of  sugar,  more  than  eighty  per  cent,  of  it  going  to 
the  United  States.  The  land  appurtenant  to  sugar 
"  ingenios  "  generally  ranged  from  five  hundred  to 
10,000  acres  in  extent,  and  they  were  equipped  with 
the  best  machinery,  much  American  and  European 
capital  being  invested  in  them.  The  tobacco  farms, 
or"  vegas,"  ranged  from  one  hundred  to  looo  acres, 
the  best  being  in  Pinar  del  Rio  and  the  southern  part 
of- Santa  Clara.  The  "  cafetales,"  or  coffee  planta- 
tions, were  much  reduced  and  rather  languishing, 
and  the  indigo  culture,  which  was  introduced  by 
Las  Casas  a  century  ago,  had  dwindled  to  small  pro- 
portions. Apart  from  what  are  regarded  as  the 
three  great  staples  of  Cuba,  there  was  some  raising 
of  cotton  for  home  use  and  the  cultivation  of  cacao 
and  manioc  on  a  moderate  scale.  Domestic  animals, 
except  sheep  and  goats,  thrive  on  the  broad  hill- 
slopes  of  the  interior,  and  cattle-raising  is  a  con- 
siderable industry  in  the  eastern  provinces.  The 
horse,  originally  brought  from  Andalusia,  has  be- 
come smaller  and  tougher  than  his  progenitors. 
Fruits  can  be  raised  in  great  profusion  and  variety, 
but  their  systematic  cultivation  is  confined  to  a  few 
localities  convenient  to  the  seaports. 

The  annual  product  of  the  sugar  crop  before  the 
last  insurrection  was  not  far  from  1,000,000  tons, 
while  the  yield  of  tobacco  was  about  500,000  bales. 
Not  less  than  250,000,000  cigars  were  manufactured, 
mostly  in  the  city  of  Havana.     According  to  the 


1 68  THE    WEST  INDIES 

United  States  Bureau  of  Statistics,  the  imports  of 
this  country  from  Cuba  for  the  five  years  ending 
June  30,  1895,  amounted  to  $346,902,092,  and  the 
exports  thereto  to  $87,269,138,  while  the  specie 
shipments  to  the  island  during  the  same  period  were 
$87,544,830  in  gold  and  $298,256  in  silver.  Apart 
from  sugar  and  other  products  of  the  cane,  and  to- 
bacco, there  is  little  manufacturing  done  in  Cuba, 
and  much  of  its  provisions,  especially  meat  and 
flour,  are  imported.  On  account  of  discriminating 
duties,  the  imports  of  manufactures  came  chiefly  from 
Spain.  Spanish  exports  to  Cuba  for  the  year  end- 
ing June  30,  1894,  amounted  to  $23,412,576,  while 
the  imports  from  the  island  were  only  $7,528,622. 
The  total  annual  exports  from  Cuba  just  before  the 
revolt  of  1895  were  about  $90,000,000  in  value,  and 
the  imports  $60,000,000.  Of  the  total  foreign  trade, 
about  three  fourths  was  with  the  United  States. 
Apart  from  the  political  disturbances  of  recent  years, 
the  sugar  interest  has  suffered  from  a  serious  decline 
in  prices  and  from  the  competition  of  the  beet-sugar 
product  of  Europe  stimulated  by  subsidies  and  pro- 
tective duties. 

There  are  several  lines  of  steamers  connecting 
Havana  and  other  Cuban  ports  with  New  York, 
isome  of  them  making  calls  at  other  islands  and  at 
intermediate  ports  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  A  Span- 
ish line  runs  between  Havana  and  Cadiz,  touching 
at  Santander  and  Corunna,  a  French  line  between 
Havana  and  St.  Nazaire,  and  a  German  line  between 
Havana  and  Hamburg,  while  an  English  line  from 
Southampton  to  Vera  Cruz,  Mexico,  stops  at  Ha- 


SOCIAL   AND  ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS        1 69 

vana  and  St.  Thomas  on  its  way.  There  are  also 
regular  lines  connecting  Havana  with  Vera  Cruz 
and  Sisal;  with  Colon,  stopping  at  Nuevitas  and 
Gibara;  and  with  San  Juan  de  Puerto  Rico,  stop- 
ping at  the  ports  on  the  northern  coast  of  Cuba. 
Coastwise  steamers  ply  from  port  to  port  all  around 
the  island.  The  principal  towns  are  connected  by 
telegraph,  which  has  been  established  by  the  govern- 
ment, largely  for  its  own  civil  and  military  service, 
and  kept  under  its  control.  There  is  a  submarine 
cable  connecting  Havana  with  Key  West  and  the 
Florida  coast,  one  running  around  from  Havana  to 
Cienfuegos  and  Santiago  de  Cuba,  another  starting 
at  Havana  which  reaches  Panama  by  way  of  Santi- 
ago, Jamaica,  Puerto  Rico,  and  the  Lesser  Antilles, 
and  finally  one  from  Havana  to  Venezuela  and 
Brazil  by  way  of  Santiago,  Haiti,  and  Santo  Do- 
mingo, 

The  bone  and  sinew  and  to  a  large  extent  the 
brains  and  character  of  the  population  of  Cuba  for 
two  generations  have  been  in  the  native  Creoles, 
though  the  Spaniards  have  continued  to  dominate 
politically  and  even  socially,  especially  in  the  great 
city  of  Havana,  which  contains  a  full  sixth  of  all  the 
people  of  the  island.  These  "  Cubans,"  as  they  are 
proud  to  call  themselves,  include  a  considerable  ele- 
ment of  highly  intelligent  and  cultivated  people, 
many  of  them  being  educated  abroad.  A  small  num- 
ber have  attained  distinction  in  science  and  litera- 
ture, but  the  general  level  of  education  is  not  high. 
The  university  at  Havana  and  the  colleges  there 
and  at  Puerto  Principe  and  Santiago,  as  well  as  most 


\yo  THE    WEST  INDIES 

of  the  schools  of  lower  grade,  are  practically  con- 
trolled by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  priest- 
hood, but  the  Sociedad  Economica,  which  was 
formed  some  years  ago,  had  for  its  main  purpose 
the  advancement  of  popular  education.  The  native 
Cubans  are,  as  a  rule,  ambitious  for  the  education 
of  their  children,  and  the  rate  of  illiteracy  is  kept  up 
largely  by  the  almost  total  ignorance  of  the  negroes, 
who  constitute  the  plantation  hands  and  manual 
labourers.  There  are  a  few  libraries  and  learned  in- 
stitutions in  the  larger  cities,  and  some  newspapers 
which,  under  a  severe  censorship,  have  done  little 
credit  to  the  communities  in  which  they  appear. 
Social  and  domestic  life  in  the  cities,  especially  in 
Havana,  has  much  of  the  old  Castilian  stateliness, 
and  women  are  generally  kept  in  retirement.  Girls 
are  mostly  educated  in  convents  and  encouraged  to 
marry  early,  and  are  not  given  to  accomplishments. 
When  young  they  are  often  attractive,  with  jet 
black  hair  and  eyes,  but  overmuch  addicted  to  cos- 
metics and  meretricious  ornament.  The  city  houses 
are  mostly  Spanish  in  style,  close  upon  the  street, 
and  built  around  a  patio  from  which  they  are  entered. 
While  the  Church  was  supported  by  the  State  at 
considerable  cost, — perhaps  in  some  measure  be- 
cause it  was  so  supported, — the  more  intelligent 
Cubans  have  been  given  to  a  cynical  free-thinking, 
leaving  the  women  to  attend  mass  and  indulge  in 
piety.  Among  the  poorer  and  more  ignorant,  there 
was  much  of  the  devout  superstition  common  to 
their  class  in  Roman  Catholic  lands.  The  peasant 
life  is  described  by  some  as  slovenly  and  verging 


¥-'i. 


lllM»-t. 

mt. 

t» 

fr 

NATIVE   CANDY    SELLER,    HAVANA.    CUBA. 


SOCIAL   AND  ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS        171 

into  that  of  the  blacks,  who  live  in  rude  cabins  amid 
patches  of  yams  and  bananas,  careless  alike  of  the 
present  and  the  future.  The  class  known  in  time  of 
trouble  as  "  pacificos  "  are  not  merely  non-combat- 
ants, but  those  heedless  and  submissive  beings  who 
take  life  as  it  comes  in  a  land  where  it  is  "  always 
afternoon,"  and  always  going  to  be  to-morrow  be- 
fore anything  happens.  But  there  are  also  in  times 
of  peace  many  thrifty  farmers  and  decent  villagers 
capable  of  making  a  useful  population. 

With  an  area  nearly  as  large  as  the  State  of 
New  York,  a  soil  and  climate  that  make  it  capable 
of  a  vastly  greater  production  at  much  less  outlay, 
and  a  situation  unrivalled  for  an  independent  com- 
merce, Cuba  has  barely  one  fifth  of  the  population 
of  that  State,  and  its  capacity  for  development  is 
yet  to  be  tested. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


REVOLUTIONARY    MOVEMENTS   IN   CUBA 


ALMOST  from  the  time  that  the  loyalty  of  Cuba 
was  glorified  with  the  sobriquet  of  the  "  Ever 
Faithful  Isle,"  the  spirit  of  revolt  against  the  Spanish 
sovereignty  began  seriously  to  assert  itself.  Little 
sign  of  it  had  appeared  in  the  last  century,  when  the 
population,  except  in  two  or  three  cities,  was  sparse, 
and  made  up  largely  of  negro  slaves,  and  when  the 
native  white  people  had  not  grown  out  of  their 
Spanish  sympathies.  The  contest  for  independence 
in  the  United  States,  to  which  both  Spaniards  and 
Cubans  had  given  aid,  and  the  revolution  in  France, 
with  the  disturbances  produced  by  it  in  Haiti,  were 
not  wholly  without  a  disquieting  effect ;  but  the 
firm  and  judicious  administration  of  two  enlight- 
ened governors-general  in  succession,  Las  Casas 
and  Santa  Clara,  prevented  any  serious  discontent. 
There  was  indeed  a  growing  antipathy  between  the 
Cubans  and  their  Spanish  rulers,  which  became  more 
marked  as  the  rule  was  felt  to  be  more  oppressive, 
and  the  Cubans  were  wont  to  speak  of  the  Spaniards 
as  Godos,  or  Goths ;  but  when  there  was  an  insurrec- 

172 


REVOLUTIONARY  MOVEMENTS  IN  CUBA      1 73 

tion  of  slaves  near  Bayamo  in  18 12  they  joined  forces 
to  put  it  down  with  the  utmost  rigour,  and  its  leader, 
Aponte,  and  a  number  of  his  associates  were  incon- 
tinently hanged. 

But  an  uneasy  spirit  was  fomented  by  the  revo- 
lutions which  spread  from  the  colonies  in  South 
America  through  Central  America  and  Mexico,  and 
by  the  independence  of  Santo  Domingo  following 
upon  that  of  Haiti ;  and  it  was  fanned  when  many 
residents  of  Florida  migrated  to  Cuba  after  the  ces- 
sion of  the  peninsula  to  the  United  States.  A 
revolutionary  association  called  "  Soles  de  Bolivar  " 
attempted  an  uprising  in  1823,  which  was  speedily 
frustrated.  Then  refugees  in  Mexico  planned  an 
invasion  under  the  "  Liberator  "  himself,  but  it 
failed  for  lack  of  support.  About  1827,  a  secret 
organisation  was  formed  under  the  name  of  the 
"  Black  Eagle,"  with  headquarters  in  Mexico  and 
branches  in  the  United  States  and  Cuba,  but  its 
designs  were  opposed  by  the  slave-holding  power, 
and  it  died  out.  All  efforts  to  give  vitality  to  revolt 
in  Cuba  seemed  doomed  to  failure.  An  appeal  was 
made  to  Spain  in  1835  for  representation  in  the 
Cortes,  which  was  at  first  treated  with  contempt, 
though  the  privilege  was  afterwards  granted  in  a 
delusive  form  only  to  be  withdrawn.  In  1844,  there 
was  another  "  scare  "  over  a  threatened  uprising  of 
slaves,  and  those  concerned  in  it  or  suspected  of 
planning  it  were  summarily  tried,  evidence  in  many 
cases  being  extorted,  and  more  than  1300  were  con- 
victed, and  seventy-eight  of  them  were  shot. 

Not  far  from  this  time  began  an  agitation  in  and 


174  THE    WEST  INDIES 

out  of  Cuba  for  the  annexation  of  the  island  to  the 
United  States.  It  was  promoted  in  this  country 
chiefly  by  the  slave  power,  whose  advantage  would 
be  increased  thereby.  As  far  back  as  1822,  at  the 
time  of  the  French  invasion  of  Spain  under  the 
Due  d'Angouleme,  there  was  a  suspicion  that 
France  might  try  to  seize  Cuba,  or  that  Great 
Britain  might  seek  to  frustrate  the  attempt  by  tak- 
ing possession  herself;  and  a  party  in  Havana, 
alarmed  at  the  prospect,  made  secret  overtures  to 
President  Monroe,  which  he  did  not  entertain,  for 
securing  the  independence  of  the  island  and  its  sub- 
sequent admission  into  the  Union  as  a  State,  to  be 
ultimately  divided  into  two  States.  This  matter 
was  first  made  known  by  John  Quincy  Adams  when 
a  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  1836. 
In  1848,  President  Polk  made  a  serious  proposition 
to  the  Spanish  Government,  through  the  American 
Minister  at  Madrid,  for  the  purchase  of  Cuba  for 
$ioo,ooo,CK)0;  but  this  was  rejected  with  little  show 
of  diplomatic  courtesy.  It  was  the  next  year  that 
Narciso  Lopez,  a  Venezuelan  by  birth,  who  had 
served  in  the  Spanish  army,  made  his  first  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  to  head  a  revolutionary  movement  in 
Cuba.  Escaping  to  New  York,  he  got  up  a  filibus- 
tering expedition  with  six  hundred  men  and  effected 
a  landing  at  Cardenas  in  1850,  but  was  forced  to  re- 
embark,  and  was  chased  to  Key  West  by  a  Spanish 
man-of-war.  The  next  year  he  got  away  from  New 
Orleans  with  another  expedition  of  four  hundred 
and  fifty  men,  with  Colonel  Crittenden  of  Ken- 
tucky as  second  in  command,  and  made  a  landing 


REVOLUTIONARY  MOVEMENTS  IN  CUBA      1 75 

on  the  coast  thirty  miles  west  of  Havana.  The 
force  was  attacked  by  Spanish  troops  and  divided, 
and  Colonel  Crittenden  and  his  associates  were  ruth- 
lessly shot.  Shortly  afterwards  Lopez  was  captured, 
and  on  the  ist  of  September,  185 1,  he  was  garrotted. 

These  filibustering  attempts  naturally  excited  a 
hostile  feeling  against  the  United  States  on  the  part 
of  the  Spaniards,  and  it  was  at  that  time  that  a 
clumsy  kind  of  retaliation  was  begun,  which  has 
done  much  to  produce  enmity  toward  Spain  in  the 
United  States.  The  Black  Warrior  was  a  steamer 
plying  between  New  York  and  Mobile,  which  had 
been  accustomed  to  call  at  Havana  to  land  and  re- 
ceive mails  and  passengers  without  discharging  or 
taking  freight.  On  that  account,  and  with  a  perfect 
understanding  that  she  carried  cargoes  in  her  coast- 
ing trade,  she  had  long  been  allowed  to  enter  and 
clear  at  Havana,  as  "  in  ballast,"  and  without  ex- 
hibiting her  manifest.  The  privilege  had  been  ac- 
corded by  written  order  of  the  authorities,  but 
suddenly,  in  the  early  part  of  1850,  the  Black  War- 
rior was  seized  for  having  an  undeclared  cargo  on 
board,  the  cargo  was  confiscated,  and  a  fine  of  twice 
its  value  was  imposed  upon  the  captain.  This  he 
refused  to  pay,  and,  leaving  his  vessel  behind,  he 
made  his  way  to  the  United  States  with  his  crew 
and  passengers  as  best  he  could,  giving  the  owners 
a  chance  to  put  in  a  claim  for  indemnity  for  $300,- 
000.     After  a  delay  of  five  years  this  was  paid. 

In  1852,  an  attempt  was  made  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Atlantic  to  effect  an  agreement  between 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  the  United  States,  that 


1/6  THE    WEST  INDIES 

none  of  those  powers  should  acquire  the  island  of 
Cuba  for  itself.  This  was  defeated  by  the  refusal 
of  the  United  States  to  enter  into  the  bargain.  In 
1854,  the  American  Ministers  at  London,  Paris,  and 
Madrid,  Messrs.  Buchanan,  Mason,  and  Soule,  held 
a  conference,  and  signed  what  was  known  as  the 

Ostend  Manifesto."  The  substance  of  this  was 
that  the  United  States  ought  to  possess  Cuba,  that 
it  would  be  to  the  advantage  of  Spain  to  sell  the 
island,  and  that  under  certain  conditions,  the  chief 
of  which  was  the  emancipation  of  slaves  by  Spain, 
the  United  States  would  be  justified  in  taking  pos- 
session by  force.  This  caused  much  discussion,  but 
was  not  upheld  by  the  United  States  Government. 
In  1858-59,  when  Buchanan  was  President,  he  re- 
commended the  purchase  of  Cuba,  and  a  proposal 
was  considered  in  Congress  but  never  adopted. 

Matters  had  been  quiescent  in  the  island  itself  for 
some  years,  and  during  the  American  civil  war 
they  continued  in  that  condition  ;  but  after  the  close 
of  that  contest,  with  the  resulting  abolition  of  slav- 
ery, the  spirit  of  revolt  was  awakened  again  and 
became  more  menacing  than  ever  before.  In  the 
meantime,  the  oppression  of  the  Spanish  power  had 
become  galling  to  a  people  in  whom  the  spirit  of 
independence  grew  year  by  year.  It  was  not  only 
absolute  and  arbitrary  in  its  exercise,  absorbing 
offices  and  emoluments  in  the  hands  of  Spaniards 
and  depriving  Cubans  of  all  share  in  their  own  gov- 
ernment, but  it  was  corrupt  and  extravagant,  for  the 
profit  of  the  ruling  class,  while  returning  none  of 
the  benefits  of  costly  administration  to  the  people. 


REVOLUTIONARY  MOVEMENTS  IN  CUBA      Ijy 

Taxes  were  heavy,  trade  was  restricted,  and  indus- 
*  tries  were  hampered.  Revenue  amounting  to  about 
$26,000,000  a  year  was  raised,  and  its  volume  was 
increasing  rapidly,  while  a  burdensome  debt  had 
been  incurred ;  and  the  main  object  was  to  benefit 
the  exhausted  finances  of  Spain  at  the  expense  of 
her  colony.  The  organisation  of  the  volunteers 
aggravated  the  feeling  of  discontent.  These  were 
called  Los  Volunterios  de  Cuba,  or  Cuban  Volun- 
teers, but  they  were  recruited  wholly  from  the  Span- 
iards in  the  island  and  became  a  powerful  political 
factor  for  the  support  of  Spanish  authority.  Their 
function  was  to  act  as  a  guard  in  the  various  towns 
and  to  protect  public  property  and  suppress  dis- 
order; and  they  were  liable  to  be  called  upon  for 
military  service.  Ordinarily  in  time  of  peace  they 
served  without  pay,  but  were  supplied  with  arms  and 
ammunition  and  furnished  with  armories  by  the 
government,  and  were  relieved  by  their  enrolment 
from  the  greater  part  of  the  regular  conscript  service. 
About  the  middle  of  1867,  a  conspiracy  was  formed 
at  Bayamo  for  the  liberation  of  Cuba.  The  leading 
spirit  of  the  revolutionary  movement  was  a  wealthy 
lawyer  and  planter  of  Santiago  province,  Carlos 
Manuel  de  Cespedes,  a  man  of  high  character  and 
ability  and  an  ardent  patriot.  Little  progress  was 
made  in  organising  the  movement  until  the  latter 
half  of  1868,  when  the  revolution  occurred  in  Spain 
which  drove  Isabella  IL  from  the  throne,  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  virtual  dictatorship  of  General  Prim 
and  Marshal  Serrano,  the  republic  of  Castelar,  the 
new  monarchy  under  the  Italian  Amadeo,  and  the 


1/8  THE    WEST  INDIES 

restoration  of  the  Bourbon  line  in  Alfonso  XII. 
The  actual  rising  in  Cuba  started  at  Yara  under  the 
lead  of  Cespedes,  and  a  declaration  of  independence 
was  proclaimed  under  date  of  October  lo,  1868,  at 
Manzanillo.  In  April,  1869,  a  constitution  was 
adopted  at  Guaimaro,  and  Cespedes  was  made  presi- 
dent of  the  "  Cuban  Republic."  Slavery  was  abol- 
ished and  freedom  of  worship  guaranteed. 

For  two  years  the  insurgents  struggled  hopefully 
and  had  practically  full  possession  of  the  eastern 
half  of  the  island,  but  they  were  ill  supplied  with 
arms  and  unable  to  move  aggressively  into  the 
western  provinces.  Filibustering  expeditions  came 
rather  feebly  to  their  aid,  the  most  effective  being 
that  of  General  Thomas  Jordan  from  the  United 
States.  The  Spanish  forces  were  gradually  strength- 
ened, and  under  the  command  of  Count  Valmaseda 
carried  a  devastating  and  barbarous  war  of  suppres- 
sion into  the  east,  without  effectually  quelling  the 
revolt.  An  irregular  and  desultory  struggle  was 
kept  up  year  after  year,  but  slowly  the  heart  seemed 
to  be  dying  out  of  the  cause  of  Cuba  Libre.  In  the 
autumn  of  1873,  Cespedes  was  deposed  by  the  Cuban 
Congress,  and  was  shortly  afterwards  found  dead, 
killed,  it  was  supposed,  by  the  Spaniards.  Then 
Salvador  Cisneros  y  Betancourt,  Marques  de  St. 
Lucia,  a  scion  of  the  old  Spanish  nobility,  was  made 
president  in  the  hope  of  keeping  the  cause  alive 
and  getting  recognition  from  the  United  States. 

The  conflict  dragged  on  until  General  Martinez 
Campos  was  sent  out  as  captain-general  of  the 
Spanish  forces  and  governor-general  of  Cuba.     As 


REVOLUTIONARY  MOVEMENTS  IN  CUBA      1 79 

early  as  1870  our  Government  had  made  a  tender  of 
its  good  offices  to  bring  about  an  adjustment  on 
a  basis  of  emancipation  and  a  fair  measure  of  self- 
government,  but  Spain  would  not  entertain  the  offer. 
Special  sympathy  was  excited  in  the  fall  of  1871 
when  some  young  students  of  the  university  at 
Havana  were  summarily  tried  by  a  court-martial  of 
volunteers  and  shot,  having  been  charged  with  the 
offence  of  defacing  a  public  tomb  in  which  the  body 
of  a  deceased  volunteer  had  been  ostentatiously 
placed.  At  about  the  same  period  reports  of  the 
barbarities  of  Valmaseda  stirred  a  feeling  of  resent- 
ment. But  the  incident  which  aroused  the  sentiment 
of  the  United  States  against  Spain  most  violently  is 
that  known  as  the  "  Virginius  affair." 

The  Virginius  was  an  irresponsible  tramp  steamer 
which  had  been  a  blockade  runner,  and  was  cruising 
about  in  a  suspicious  manner,  with  a  mongrel  crew, 
partly  made  up  of  Americans.  But  she  was  registered 
as  an  American  vessel,  carried  the  American  flag,  had 
regularly  cleared  from  Kingston,  Jamaica,  for  Port 
Limon,  Costa  Rica,  October  23,  1873,  and  was  en- 
gaged at  the  time  in  no  clandestine  or  illicit  opera- 
tions, so  far  as  appeared.  She  was  seized  off  the 
coast  of  Jamaica  by  the  Spanish  cruiser  Tornado,  and 
brought  into  Santiago,  November  ist,  charged  with 
piracy.  On  this  absurd  charge  the  governor  of 
Santiago  de  Cuba  proceeded,  in  spite  of  the  vigor- 
ous protests  of  the  American  vice-consul,  to  try 
members  of  the  crew  one  after  another  and  to  have 
them  shot,  until  in  six  days  fifty-three  had  been  dis- 
posed of  in  that  way,  including  several  American 


l80  THE    WEST  INDIES 

citizens.  This  gentle  operation  was  interrupted  by 
the  appearance  of  a  British  man-of-war  from  Ja- 
maica and  the  success  of  the  consul,  after  many  re- 
buffs, in  getting  attention  to  his  remonstrances  from 
higher  authority  than  the  Spanish  officer  in  com- 
mand at  Santiago.  Our  Minister  at  Madrid,  General 
Sickles,  had  been  working  energetically,  and  though 
Castelar  was  then  president  of  the  Spanish  Repub- 
lic, he  had  much  difificulty  in  securing  the  necessary 
interposition.  The  slaughter  had  been  stopped  on 
the  8th  by  the  arrival  of  the  British  man-of-war, 
which  had  been  followed  in  a  few  days  by  Com- 
mander Gushing  with  the  Wyoming,  of  the  United 
States  navy;  and  finally,  on  the  26th,  after  asking 
for  his  passports,  General  Sickles  secured  compliance 
with  his  demands  that  the  Vtrgi?iuis  and  the  surviv- 
ors of  the  crew  be  given  up,  that  the  perpetrators  of 
the  massacre  be  punished,  and  the  flag  of  the  United 
States  saluted.  Subsequently  an  indemnity  of  $80,- 
cxx)  was  obtained  for  the  families  of  those  Ameri- 
cans who  had  been  shot. 

This  incident  had  a  lasting  effect  upon  the  senti- 
ment of  the  people  of  the  United  States  toward 
Spain  in  her  relation  to  Cuba.  In  November,  1875, 
Secretary  of  State  Hamilton  Fish  addressed  a  com- 
munication to  the  Hon.  Caleb  Gushing,  American 
Minister  at  Madrid,  to  be  laid  before  the  Spanish 
Government,  remonstrating  against  the  continuance 
of  the  existing  condition  in  Cuba,  and  announcing 
"  with  reluctance  "  the  conclusion  that  the  time 
was  at  hand  when  it  would  become  the  duty  of  the 
Government  to  intervene  "  with  the  view  of  bring- 


REVOLUTIONARY  MOVEMENTS  IN  CUBA       l8l 

ing  to  an  end  a  disastrous  and  destructive  conflict 
and  of  restoring  peace  in  the  island  of  Cuba." 
President  Grant,  in  his  annual  message  to  Congress 
in  December  of  the  same  year,  after  giving  at  length 
reasons  for  not  recognising  the  independence  of 
Cuba  or  according  belligerent  rights  to  the  insur- 
gents, declared  that  intervention  might  become 
necessary  to  terminate  the  strife  which  was  so 
injurious  to  the  interests  of  the  United  States. 

Doubtless  these  events  hastened  the  efforts  of 
Spain  to  bring  the  war  to  an  end,  which  was  at  last 
accomplished  by  General  Campos  by  the  treaty  of 
El  Zanjon,  in  February,  1878.  The  life  of  the  in- 
surrection was  no  doubt  exhausted,  but  it  was 
charged  that  its  surviving  leaders  were  bought  off. 
The  terms  included  a  general  amnesty  and  oblivion, 
and  liberty  to  leave  the  island  without  molestation, 
and  there  was  a  promise  of  '*  the  same  political 
privileges,  organic  and  administrative,  enjoyed  by 
the  island  of  Puerto  Rico,"  which  meant  little  more 
than  barren  representation  in  the  Spanish  Cortes. 
Assurances  of  other  reforms  were  given  as  an  induce- 
ment for  signing  the  treaty,  and  General  Campos 
gained  the  credit  and  prestige  of  pacifying  the 
"  Ever  Faithful  Isle  "  after  a  vain  struggle  of  ten 
years  for  her  freedom,  which  it  was  said  to  have 
cost  Spain  100,000  men  and  $200,000,000  to  defeat. 
The  total  number  of  Spanish  soldiers  engaged,  how- 
ever, was  a  little  over  155,000,  besides  80,000  volun- 
teers, and  the  number  of  deaths  among  the  former 
during  the  war,  according  to  the  official  records, 
was  81,098. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


THE  ACHIEVEMENT  OF  CUBAN  INDEPENDENCE 


WHATEVER  promises  or  assurances  of  reform 
may  have  been  made  by  General  Campos  to 
secure  the  peace  of  1878,  they  were  not  kept,  and 
the  grievances  of  the  island  grew  heavier.  The  cost 
of  the  war  was  put  upon  Cuba,  and  a  debt  that 
began  with  $3,000,000  in  1864  was  increased  to 
$175,000,000.  Taxes  were  multiplied  and  rigor- 
ously exacted  in  the  face  of  a  decline  in  the  great 
sugar  interest,  and  ofificial  corruption  continued. 
General  Pando,  in  a  speech  in  the  Cortes  in  1890, 
gave  a  list  of  peculations  which  he  reckoned  at  $40,- 
000,000  in  the  aggregate;  and  a  writer  in  the  Ateneo 
de  Madrid,  in  1895,  declared  that  the  custom-house 
frauds  since  the  close  of  the  war  amounted  to  $100,- 
000,000.  The  exhaustion  of  the  last  insurrection 
had  not  subdued  the  spirit  of  revolt,  and  it  was  not 
long  before  a  new  revolution  was  plotted  from  the 
outside.  There  were  many  Cubans,  refugees  or 
voluntary  exiles,  scattered  over  the  world,  and  no 
less  than  40,000  lived  in  the  United  States,  many  of 
whom  had  become  American  citizens.     A  "  Gran 

182 


ACHIEVEMENT  OF  CUBAN  INDEPENDENCE      1 83 

Junta  "  was  formed  with  headquarters  in  New 
York  and  with  subordinate  juntas  in  different  parts 
of  the  United  States  and  Spanish  America,  and 
even  in  the  leading  cities  of  Europe,  while  secret 
societies  were  organised  in  the  island  itself.  The 
purpose  was  to  lay  plans,  raise  funds,  and  make 
preparations  which  should  free  Cuba  from  Spanish 
rule  and  establish  her  independence.  By  the  begin- 
ning of  1895,  the  revolutionary  party  was  said  to 
comprise  one  hundred  and  forty  societies,  or  juntas. 
The  leading  organiser  and  promoter  of  the  revolu- 
tion at  that  time  was  Jose  Marti,  a  native  Cuban 
who  had  been  educated  in  Spain  and  had  lived  long 
in  the  United  States.  He  planned  a  general  upris- 
ing in  all  the  provinces  of  Cuba  to  take  place  on  the 
24th  of  February,  1895,  and  organised  an  expedition 
which  was  to  start  from  Fernandina,  Florida,  with 
three  vessels,  a  considerable  force  of  men,  and  war 
supplies  and  munitions.  The  departure  of  this  ex- 
pedition was  prevented  by  the  United  States  authori- 
ties, and  Marti  set  out  for  Santo  Domingo  to  concert 
plans  with  General  Maximo  Gomez  and  other  lead- 
ers of  the  former  rebellion.  Two  of  the  chiefs  in 
the  new  movement  were  the  mulatto  brothers,  An- 
tonio and  Jose  Maceo,  who  were  in  Costa  Rica. 
The  rising  took  place  on  the  appointed  day,  but 
only  in  a  feeble  manner  in  Santiago  province  under 
Henry  Brooks  and  Pedro  Perez,  and  in  Matanzas 
under  Manuel  Garcia.  Marti  and  Gomez  issued  a 
"  manifesto  "  from  Santo  Domingo  on  March  25th. 
The  Maceos,  Dr.  Agramonte,  and  others  succeeded 
in  landing  near  Baracoa,  March  31st,  and  Marti  and 


1 84  THE    WEST  INDIES 

Gomez  arrived  at  Cape  Maisi,  April  13th,  with  eighty 
men.  When  the  movement  began,  the  Spanish  cap- 
tain-general, Emilio  Calleja  Isasi,  had  only  19,000 
troops  at  his  command,  9000  of  whom  were  in  the 
eastern  department;  and  though  martial  law  was 
proclaimed  in  Matanzas  and  Santiago  and  several 
arrests  were  made,  the  revolt  gathered  head  in  the 
latter  province.  A  battalion  of  7000  men  was  brought 
from  Puerto  Rico,  and  Calleja  was  superseded  by 
Marshal  Martinez  Campos,  who  had  ended  the 
former  rebellion,  and  who  now  came  out  with  rein- 
forcements from  Spain.  He  landed  at  Guantanamo, 
April  i6th,  to  take  personal  command  in  the  field. 
The  insurgent  leaders  effected  a  junction  and 
drummed  up  recruits  in  the  eastern  provinces,  most 
of  them  negroes. 

The  first  care  of  these  leaders  was  to  organise  a 
semblance  of  civil  government.  At  a  formal  meet- 
ing at  Mejorana  on  the  4th  of  May,  in  which  Marti, 
Gomez,  and  Antonio  Maceo  took  part,  a  call  was 
issued  for  the  selection  of  representatives  of  the 
Cuban  people  to  form  a  Constituent  Assembly. 
Marti  was  killed  in  a  skirmish  with  a  Spanish  force, 
encountered  on  the  way  to  the  coast,  where  he  was 
to  embark  for  Jamaica  with  the  intention  of  going 
to  the  United  States.  This  event  delayed  proceed- 
ings somewhat,  but  members  of  the  Constituent 
Assembly  were  chosen,  and  it  met  at  Jimaguayu, 
September  13,  1895,  declared  the  independence  of 
Cuba  and  its  separation  from  the  Spanish  monarchy 
as  a  republic,  and  adopted  a  provisional  constitution 
which  was  to  have  effect  for  two  years  unless  the 


ACHIEVEMENT  OF  CUBAN  INDEPENDENCE      1 85 

freedom  of  the  island  was  sooner  accomplished. 
The  Assembly  chose  the  venerable  Salvador  Cisne- 
ros  y  Betancourt  of  Puerto  Principe  as  president 
of  the  new-born  republic,  and  Bartolom^  Masso  as 
vice-president.  Heads  of  administrative  depart- 
ments were  also  named,  and  Maximo  Gomez  was 
elected  commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  and  An- 
tonio Maceo  second  in  command  with  the  title  of 
lieutenant-general,  Tomas  Estrada  Palma,  head  of 
the  Gran  Junta,  was  chosen  to  be  "  delegate  pleni- 
potentiary and  general  agent  abroad  of  the  Cuban 
Republic."  A  capital  was  established  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Cubitas,  and  a  form  of  civil  administration 
for  provinces  and  prefectures  was  organised  and 
carried  out  in  part,  though  the  actual  governing 
power  was  chiefly  exercised  through  the  military 
officers. 

In  the  meantime  military  movements  were  actively 
afoot.  The  insurgents  got  the  advantage  in  the 
first  encounters  in  the  east,  including  one  with  a 
part  of  the  forces  of  Campos  near  Bayamo,  in  which 
the  Spanish  general  Santocildes  was  killed.  They 
made  their  way  into  the  province  of  Puerto  Prin- 
cipe, while  General  Lacret  succeeded  in  landing  with 
an  expedition  from  Jamaica,  and  Roloff  and  Sanchez 
arrived  with  another  from  Key  West. 

Baffled  by  the  elusive  tactics  of  the  insurgent 
bands.  General  Campos  prepared  for  the  fall  cam- 
paign by  rehabilitating  and  strengthening  the  old 
"  trocha  "  across  the  island  from  Jucaro  to  Moron, 
clearing  timber  away  from  the  line,  establishing 
forts  and  blockhouses  at  short  intervals,  and  plan- 


1 86  THE    WEST  INDIES 

ning  to  station  50,000  troops  on  this  barrier  to  con- 
fine the  insurrection  to  the  east,  where  he  expected 
effectually  to  suppress  it.  There  was  only  a  se- 
ries of  desultory  movements  and  preparations  until 
November,  when  Generals  Pando  and  Marin  arrived 
with  30,000  more  troops  from  Spain.  The  insur- 
gents did  not  concentrate  and  wait  to  be  suppressed, 
but  by  dividing  into  small  bands  and  moving  about 
in  a  bewildering  manner  they  worked  their  way 
west  of  the  trocha  to  the  vicinity  of  Santo  Espiritu 
and  then  to  the  valley  of  Cienfuegos,  When  Cam- 
pos undertook  to  make  a  stand  against  their  advance, 
with  a  force  concentrated  in  front  of  them,  they 
scattered  and  eluded  him,  and  zigzagged  back  and 
forth  until  they  got  into  Matanzas  province.  If 
they  encountered  a  small  Spanish  detachment  they 
worsted  it;  and  if  they  found  a  strong  one  in  their 
way  they  evaded  it.  So  they  gathered  force  as  they 
went,  coercing  those  to  join  them  who  would  not 
do  so  voluntarily,  and  appearing  at  the  beginning 
of  1896  within  a  dozen  miles  of  Havana  with  a  force 
of  nearly  12,000  men.  Maceo  made  his  way  into 
Pinar  del  Rio  with  4000  men,  and  Gomez  stopped 
the  cane-grinding  and  ravaged  the  plantations  of  the 
rich  provinces  of  Matanzas  and  Havana,  to  deprive 
the  Spanish  army  of  its  chief  support. 

The  general  policy  of  Campos  was  one  of  concilia- 
tion, and  he  could  find  no  chance  to  conciliate.  His 
military  campaign  was  systematic  on  paper,  but  it 
was  deranged  and  his  forces  were  scattered  by  the 
irregular  and  bafifling  movements  of  the  insurgents, 
who   were  gathering  strength   and  carrying  every- 


ACHIEVEMENT  OF  CUBAN  INDEPENDENCE      1 8/ 

thing  before  them,  at  a  distance  from  the  cities  and 
mihtary  stations.  In  short,  Campos's  whole  plan 
of  campaign  was  a  failure,  because  his  efforts  to 
carry  it  out  were  constantly  thwarted.  A  cry  was 
raised  for  his  recall,  and  he  left  Cuba,  January  17th, 
turning  the  command  over  to  General  Sabas  Marin. 
His  successor,  General  Nicola  Valeriano  Weyler, 
Marques  de  Tenerife,  arrived  at  Havana,  February 
lOth,  to  institute  a  campaign  of  vigour  and  of  rigour. 
General  Weyler  had  a  command  in  the  former  war, 
and  by  his  ruthless  methods  earned  the  sobriquet  of 
the  "  butcher,"  He  now  proceeded  to  justify  it. 
Maceo  had  been  having  things  his  own  way  in  Pinar 
del  Rio  ;  and,  in  spite  of  a  new  trocha  which  General 
Marin  established  from  Mariel  to  Majana  in  the 
western  province,  he  got  back  to  join  Gomez  in 
ravaging,  burning,  and  destroying  in  Matanzas  and 
Havana. 

General  Weyler  undertook  to  gather  the  scattered 
Spanish  forces  and  reorganise  an  army  for  attack 
upon  the  insurgent  "  army,"  which  consisted  of 
agile  bands  of  guerillas  chiefly  engaged  in  avoiding 
attack  while  devastating  the  country.  He  ordered 
the  "  pacificos  "  of  the  rural  sections,  who  were  as- 
sumed to  be  aiding  and  supporting  the  insurgents, 
to  be  concentrated  in  the  towns  under  military 
guard,  about  which  were  *'  zones  of  cultivation," 
where  they  were  to  sustain  themselves  as  best  they 
might.  The  Spanish  commander  then  set  forth 
on  a  campaign  of  destruction  and  extirpation  of 
rebels,  as  if  determined  to  "  make  a  solitude  and 
call  it  peace."     He   found   his  concentrated  army 


1 88  THE    WEST  INDIES 

effective  only  for  the  work  of  general  slaughter  and 
devastation,  being  unable  to  bring  the  armed  forces 
of  the  enemy  into  actual  engagement.  False  re- 
ports of  victories  were  sent  abroad,  and  foreign  cor- 
respondents were  not  allowed  to  disseminate  facts. 
The  province  of  Pinar  del  Rio  was  declared  to  be 
"  pacified,"  whereupon  Maceo  sacked  Batabano, 
and  then  made  his  way  back  west  of  the  Mariel- 
Majana  trocha,  where  his  principal  lieutenant,  Ber- 
mudez,  an  ex-bandit  chief,  had  been  spreading 
terror  by  plundering  and  burning  the  unresisting 
towns  and  plantations.  General  Weyler  then  de- 
voted himself  to  strengthening  the  trocha  and 
stationing  30,000  men  along  the  line. 

During  the  marauding  campaign  of  the  summer, 
Jos6  Maceo,  Sanchez,  Mirabel,  and  Zayas  among 
the  insurgent  ofificers  had  been  killed,  and  Gomez 
began  to  work  his  way  back  through  Santa  Clara  to 
Camaguey.  Early  in  the  year,  Calixto  Garcia,  after 
three  unsuccessful  attempts  to  get  away  from  the 
United  States  coast  with  filibustering  expeditions, 
had  succeeded  in  landing  with  one  hundred  and 
eight  men  and  some  munitions  and  supplies  in 
eastern  Cuba,  where  he  strove  to  rally  the  languish- 
ing spirit  of  revolt.  In  the  autumn  Gomez  was 
moving  toward  the  eastern  provinces,  while  Maceo 
was  in  the  hills  of  Pinar  del  Rio,  with  Weyler's 
army  threatening  to  close  in  upon  him  from  the 
fortified  line  of  the  new  trocha.  The  Cuban  chief 
succeeded  in  making  his  way  around  the  trocha  with 
a  small  escort  over  Mariel  Bay,  and  endeavoured  by 
couriers  to  rally  the  scattered  forces  of  the  insurrec- 


ACHIEVEMENT  OF  CUBAN  INDEPENDENCE      1 89 

tion  left  behind  by  Gomez  in  Matanzas  and  Havana, 
at  a  rendezvous  near  Punta  Brava.  While  awaiting 
concentration  there  he  was  suddenly  attacked  by  a 
band  of  Spaniards  under  Major  Cirujeda  and  killed. 
He  was  recognised  only  when  the  dead  were  stripped 
by  prowlers,  and  his  body  was  then  rescued  and 
carried  away  by  Pedro  Diaz.  His  staff  surgeon, 
Dr.  Zatucha,  surrendered,  and  was  accused  of  having 
betrayed  his  chief. 

The  depressing  effect  of  Maceo's  death  and  the 
retirement  of  Gomez  from  the  western  provinces 
were  not  overcome  by  the  accession  of  strength 
brought  by  the  comparatively  few  and  feeble  fili- 
bustering expeditions  which  succeeded  in  landing, 
among  the  many  actively  promoted  and  supported 
by  the  Cuban  Junta  and  other  sympathisers  in  the 
United  States.  The  efforts  to  get  help  to  the  island 
from  that  quarter  were  baffled  by  the  vigilance  of 
the  American  authorities.  The  eastern  provinces 
were  in  the  hands  of  the  insurgents,  except  a  few 
points  held  by  Spanish  garrisons,  like  Santiago, 
Manzanillo,  and  Holguin,  and  there  was  little 
chance  for  aggressive  operations  there.  Early  in 
1897,  Weyler,  assuming  that  the  western  provinces 
were  "  pacified,"  proceeded  upon  a  campaign  of 
slaughter  and  devastation  eastward  as  far  as  the  fer- 
tile region  between  Santa  Clara  and  Trinidad,  while 
Gomez,  Garcia,  and  Bandera  were  indulging  in  des- 
ultory movements  still  farther  east.  The  raiding 
bands  left  behind  in  Matanzas  and  Havana  were 
under  the  command  of  General  Lacret.  He  was 
relieved  by  command  of  Gomez  for  being  too  lenient 


190  THE   WEST  INDIES 

with  "  pacificos  "  who  did  not  support  him,  while 
those  "  concentrated  "  out  of  his  reach  were  dying 
of  disease  and  starvation.  He  was  succeeded  by 
General  Rodriguez,  but  the  only  result  of  the  opera- 
tions in  the  west  in  the  spring  of  1897  was  to  destroy 
property,  paralyse  industry  and  trade,  and  aggravate 
the  terrible  distress  which  was  almost  universal. 

There  was  the  usual  lull  in  the  summer,  but  the 
horrors  of  the  Weyler  campaign  of  slaughter  and 
destruction  and  the  suffering  and  wholesale  death  of 
the  wretched  "  reconcentrados  "  were  producing  a 
profound  impression  in  the  United  States.  In 
August,  Canovas  del  Castillo,  the  Prime  Minister 
of  Spain,  who  had  sent  General  Weyler  out  to  suc- 
ceed Campos,  and  who  insisted  upon  the  policy  of 
forcing  submission  before  considering  measures  of 
conciliation  and  reform,  was  assassinated,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Praxedes  Mateo  Sagasta,  who  pro- 
ceeded to  reverse  that  policy  and  to  propose  meas- 
ures of  conciliation  and  reform  as  a  means  of  bringing 
the  insurrection  to  an  end.  To  carry  out  the  new 
policy,  General  Ramon  Blanco  was  sent  to  supersede 
Weyler  as  governor-general,  and  the  latter  returned 
at  once  to  Spain  to  join  in  the  opposition  to  a  prof- 
fered scheme  of  autonomy  for  Cuba. 

Hostilities  were  virtually  in  suspense,  save  for 
some  spasmodic  movements  here  and  there,  and  on 
the  arrival  of  Blanco,  in  November,  1897,  he  pro- 
ceeded with  his  new  policy  of  pacification.  Partly 
in  response  to  remonstrances  from  the  United  States 
Government,  the  orders  of  reconcentration  were  re- 
voked, and  measures  of  relief  for  the  suffering  and 


ACHIEVEMENT  OF  CUBAN  INDEPENDENCE      I9I 

starving  "  pacificos  "  were  taken  or  permitted,  for 
they  were  little  better  off  in  their  devastated  homes 
than  in  the  guarded  towns.  The  insurgent  forces 
were  scattered,  exhausted,  and  disheartened,  and 
the  Spanish  army  was  demoralised.  A  scheme  of 
autonomy,  which  had  not  yet  been  approved  by  the 
Spanish  Cortes,  and  whose  chief  feature  was  the 
creation  of  an  insular  parliament  with  restricted 
powers,  was  laboriously  put  into  effect,  though 
utterly  repudiated  by  all  sympathisers  with  the  re- 
bellion, and  disliked  by  most  -of  the  resident  Span- 
iards. It  had  the  support  of  a  small  autonomist 
party,  chiefly  in  Havana;  and  by  most  others  was 
regarded  either  as  visionary  and  impracticable,  or  as 
a  delusion  and  a  snare.  In  the  United  States  there 
was  little  confidence  in  its  being  accepted  by  the 
Cubans  or  continued  in  good  faith  by  the  Spanish 
Government. 

The  Cuban  "  Constitution  "  of  1895  had  provided 
for  a  new  Constituent  assembly,  to  meet  in  October, 
1897,  and  an  electoral  law  was  passed  by  the  "  Ad- 
ministrative Council  "  for  the  selection  of  delegates 
from  the  six  provinces.  Under  this,  twenty-four 
representatives  were  elected  by  the  "  citizens  of  the 
republic,"  including  those  who  were  serving  as 
soldiers  in  the  field,  and  the  sessions  of  the  As- 
sembly were  held  in  October  and  November,  1897. 
A  new  constitution  was  adopted,  to  be  in  force  two 
years  unless  independence  was  sooner  achieved,  and 
new  officers  of  government  were  chosen.  Bartolom6 
Masso  was  made  president,  and  Domingo  Mendez 
Capote  vice-president,    and   heads    of  departments 


192  THE  WEST  INDIES 

were  elected  by  the  Assembly  as  before.  Major- 
General  Maximo  Gomez  was  again  made  general-in- 
chief  of  the  army,  and  Calixto  Garcia  was  made 
lieutenant-general  and  second  in  command.  The 
village  of  Esperanza  in  the  Sierra  de  Cubitas  con- 
tinued to  be  the  nominal  capital,  but  it  was  captured 
by  a  Spanish  force  in  January,  1898,  the  govern- 
ment of  the  "  republic  "  making  good  its  escape. 

In  December,  1896,  President  Cleveland  devoted 
much  space  in  his  last  message  to  the  United  States 
Congress  to  a  review  and  discussion  of  the  situation 
in  Cuba,  and  declared  that  the  time  might  arrive 

"  when  considerations  of  humanity  and  a  desire  to  see  a 
rich  and  fertile  country,  intimately  related  to  us,  saved 
from  complete  devastation,  will  constrain  our  Govern- 
ment to  such  action  as  will  subserve  the  interests  thus 
involved  [those  previously  discussed]  and  at  the  same 
time  preserve  to  Cuba  and  its  inhabitants  an  opportunity 
to  enjoy  the  blessings  of  peace." 

In  his  first  annual  message  to  Congress,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1897,  President  McKinley  reviewed  the  situation 
in  the  light  of  the  events  of  that  time,  giving 
reasons  against  a  recognition  of  Cuban  independ- 
ence or  belligerency,  accepting  the  change  of  policy 
adopted  by  Spain  as  sincere,  and  favouring  an  ami- 
cable settlement  of  all  difficulties ;  but  in  closing  he 
said : 

"  If  it  shall  hereafter  appear  to  be  a  duty  imposed 
upon  us  by  our  obligations  to  ourselves,  to  civilisation 
and  humanity,  to  intervene  with  force,  it  shall  be  with- 


ACHIEVEMENT   OF   CUBAN  INDEPENDENCE      1 93 

out  fault  on  our  part,  and  only  because  the  necessity  for 
sucJa  action  will  be  so  clear  as  to  command  the  support 
and  approval  of  the  civilised  world." 

While  Governor-General  Blanco  was  endeavouring 
to  carry  out  the  plan  of  autonomy  in  January,  1898, 
there  were  riots  in  Havana  in  opposition  to  the  move- 
ment, in  which  the  volunteers  took  the  leading  part, 
and  there  was  a  display  of  hostile  feeling  toward  the 
United  States,  which  seemed  to  menace  the  lives 
and  property  of  American  citizens.  The  Atlantic 
squadron  of  the  United  States  navy  had  been  moved 
down  from  Hampton  Roads,  Va. ,  to  Key  West,  Fla. , 
and  on  the  25th  of  January  the  second-class  battle- 
ship Maine  was  sent  to  Havana,  under  the  guise  of 
a  "  friendly  visit,"  but  obviously  as  a  precaution  in 
case  American  interests  should  need  defending. 
On  the  night  of  February  15th,  the  Maine  was  de- 
stroyed by  an  explosion,  which  was  afterwards 
decided  by  a  court  of  inquiry  to  be  external  and 
below  its  hull,  and  probably  that  of  a  submarine 
mine  discharged  from  the  shore.  Congress  was 
then  in  session,  reports  of  the  atrocities  of  Weyler's 
campaign  and  the  sufferings  of  the  "  reconcentra- 
dos  "  were  still  rife,  and  there  was  much  debate  of 
intervention,  peaceable  or  forcible,  for  the  termina- 
tion of  the  warfare  in  Cuba.  The  fact  that  the  case 
of  the  insurgents  had  become  desperate,  and  that 
they  were  in  danger  of  losing  all  they  had  struggled 
for,  joined  with  the  belief  that  the  Maine  had  been 
blown  up  at  the  instigation  or  with  the  connivance 
of  Spanish  authorities  or  officers,  tended  irresistibly 
to  bring  about  intervention  "  with  force,"  though 


194  THE   WEST  INDIES 

the  President  appeared  to  be  striving  by  diplomacy 
to  avert  the  necessity.  v 

The  drift  toward  hostility  was  so  strong  that  on 
the  5th  of  April,  General  Fitzhugh  Lee,  the  Ameri- 
can consul-general  at  Havana,  abandoned  his  post, 
after  warning  all  Americans  of  the  expediency  of 
leaving  Cuba,  and  after  aiding  the  departure  of  all 
who  desired  it.  On  April  nth,  the  President  sent 
a  special  message  to  Congress  in  which,  after  re- 
viewing the  situation  anew,  he  asked  that  body  to 

"  authorise  the  President  to  take  measures  to  secure  a 
full  and  final  termination  of  hostilities  between  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Spain  and  the  people  of  Cuba,  and  to  secure 
in  the  island  the  establishment  of  a  stable  government 
capable  of  maintaining  order  and  observing  its  inter- 
national obligations,  insuring  peace  and  tranquillity  and 
the  security  of  its  citizens  as  well  as  our  own,  and  to  use 
the  military  and  naval  forces  of  the  United  States  as 
may  be  necessary  for  these  purposes." 

This  led  to  the  adoption  of  a  joint  resolution  on 
the  19th  of  April,  declaring  that  the  people  of  Cuba 
"  are  and  of  right  ought  to  be  free  and  independ- 
ent," demanding  that  the  Government  of  Spain  re- 
linquish its  authority  in  the  island  and  withdraw  its 
land  and  naval  forces  from  Cuba  and  Cuban  waters, 
and  directing  the  President  to  use  the  land  and  naval 
forces  of  the  United  States  "  to  carry  these  resolu- 
tions into  effect."  This  was  immediately  followed 
by  the  departure  of  the  Spanish  Minister  from 
Washington  and  of  the  American  Minister  from 
Madrid,  an  order  for  the  blockade  of  the  ports  of 
Cuba,  and  a  call  for  125,000  volunteers  for  the  United 


ACHIEVEMENT  OF  CUBAN  INDEPENDENCE      I95 

States  army;  and  on  April  25th,  there  was  a  formal 
declaration  by  act  of  Congress  that  war  existed  and 
had  existed  "  since  the  21st  day  of  April,  A.D. 
1898,  including  that  day,  between  the  United  States 
of  America  and  the  kingdom  of  Spain." 

During  the  war,  which  was  suspended  by  the  sign- 
ing of  a  peace  protocol  at  Washington  on  the  12th 
of  August,  the  blockade  of  the  ports  of  Cuba  was 
maintained,  and  insignificant  attacks  were  made 
upon  the  defences  of  Matanzas  and  Cardenas ;  but  the 
decisive  events  were  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish 
fleet  of  four  cruisers  and  two  torpedo-boat  destroy- 
ers, under  Admiral  Cervera,  outside  of  the  harbour 
of  Santiago,  on  the  3d  of  July,  and  the  surrender  of 
the  city  of  Santiago  de  Cuba  to  the  land  forces  of 
the  United  States  on  the  14th  of  that  month. 

Cervera  had  left  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  for  the 
West  Indies  on  the  29th  of  April,  and  after  cruising 
about  in  a  manner  that  seemed  somewhat  aimless, 
had  taken  refuge  in  the  harbour  of  Santiago  on  May 
19th.  As  soon  as  this  was  known,  an  American 
"  flying  squadron,"  under  Commodore  W.  S. 
Schley,  took  up  its  position  off  the  entrance  to  the 
harbour,  and  was  joined  by  the  main  body  of  the 
American  fleet,  under  Acting  Rear-Admiral  W.  T. 
Sampson,  on  the  ist  of  June,  the  latter  officer  then 
taking  command.  There  was  some  bombarding  of 
the  defences  and  an  attempt  to  block  the  channel 
by  sinking  the  collier  Merrimac  across  it,  on  the 
night  of  June  3d,  at  a  point  within  the  line  of  the 
outer  forts, — a  perilous  venture  heroically  carried 
out  under  the  fire  of  the  enemy's  guns  by  Lieuten- 


196  THE   WEST  INDIES 

ant  Hobson  and  six  men,  who  were  captured  and 
held  as  prisoners  until  exchanged  a  month  later. 
A  land  force  was  immediately  sent  to  co-operate 
with  the  navy  at  Santiago.  A  body  of  six  hundred 
marines  had  landed  at  Caimanera  on  Guantanamo 
Bay,  June  loth,  and  had  a  sharp  skirmish  to  hold 
the  place ;  and  on  the  22d,  the  Fifth  Army  Corps 
of  about  12,000  men  arrived  from  Tampa,  under 
command  of  Major-General  W.  R.  Shafter,  landing 
at  Siboney  and  Daiquiri  east  of  Santiago.  In 
making  the  advance  up  the  heights  for  the  attack 
on  the  city,  a  part  of  the  force  encountered  the 
enemy  at  Sevilla,  or  "  Las  Guasimas,"  on  the  24th 
of  June,  and  had  a  fierce  and  deadly  struggle  in 
breaking  the  way  for  the  army  over  a  narrow  trail. 
On  July  1st  and  2d,  there  w-as  hard  fighting  in  the 
taking  of  El  Caney  and  San  Juan,  and  the  Ameri- 
can loss  was  two  hundred  and  thirty-one  killed  and 
1364  wounded,  but  the  victory  over  the  Spaniards 
was  complete. 

On  the  3d  of  July,  Admiral  Cervera,  acting  under 
orders  from  Captain-General  Blanco,  made  a  dash 
out  of  Santiago  Bay  with  his  fleet  and  attempted  to 
escape  along  the  coast  to  the  west.  There  was  a 
terrible  running  battle,  the  American  cruiser  Brook- 
lyn and  the  battle-ships  Iowa,  Indiana,  Orego7i,  and 
Texas  joining  in  the  attack  and  destroying  or  driv- 
ing ashore  all  the  Spanish  cruisers,  with  dreadful 
destruction  of  life  and  the  capture  of  all  the  surviv- 
ing officers  and  crews.  A  demand  was  then  imme- 
diately made  upon  the  commander  of  the  Spanish 
land  forces,  General  Toral,  for  the  surrender  of  the 


ACHIEVEMENT  OF  CUBAN  INDEPENDENCE      1 97 

city  of  Santiago  and  the  adjoining  territory,  and 
after  considerable  parley  and  negotiating  the  demand 
was  complied  with,  and  on  the  17th  of  July  the 
United  States  flag  was  raised  on  the  government 
building.  Brigadier-General  Leonard  Wood  was 
put  in  command  as  military  governor. 

In  the  peace  protocol  already  referred  to,  it  was 
agreed  that  "  Spain  will  renounce  all  claim  to  all 
sovereignty  over,  and  all  her  rights  over  the  island 
of  Cuba,"  and  that  "  Spain  will  immediately  evacu- 
ate Cuba,  Puerto  Rico,  and  the  other  islands  under 
Spanish  sovereignty  in  the  Antilles."  Three  com- 
missioners were  to  be  appointed  by  each  party  to 
the  agreement  to  settle  the  details  of  the  evacua- 
tion. There  were  about  1 18,000  troops  to  be  trans- 
ported to  Spain,  and  the  commissioners  met  in 
Havana  early  in  October  to  direct  the  manner  of 
their  removal,  with  the  expectation  that  the  process 
would  be  completed  by  the  end  of  the  year.  Plans 
were  adopted  for  organising  an  army  of  occupation 
during  the  autumn,  which  was  to  be  landed  upon 
the  island  as  the  Spanish  troops  departed.  This 
army  was  to  be  under  the  command  of  General 
John  R.  Brooke,  as  military  governor  of  Cuba,  and 
there  was  to  be  a  department  commander  in  each 
province.  General  Fitzhugh  Lee,  the  last  consul- 
general  at  Havana,  was  to  have  command  of  the 
troops  in  Havana  province,  and  General  William 
Ludlow  was  made  military  governor  of  the  city. 

An  assembly  of  Cuban  deputies,  consisting  of 
eight  delegates  from  each  of  the  six  corps  of  the 
Cuban  army,  representing  also  the  six  provinces  of 


198  THE   WEST  INDIES 

the  island,  met  at  Santa  Cruz  del  Sur,  on  the  24th  of 
October,  to  take  the  preliminary  steps  toward  the 
organisation  of  a  permanent  government  for  the  re- 
public. Early  in  November,  President  Masso  and 
other  officers  of  the  "  Provisional  Administrative 
Council  "  resigned  their  offices,  and  the  assembly 
appointed  a  committee  of  five,  of  which  Rafael  M, 
Portuondo  was  president,  to  take  charge  of  affairs 
until  the  reassembling  of  the  constituent  body,  for 
which  no  date  was  fixed.  One  of  the  functions  of 
the  committee  was  to  secure  the  disbandment  of  the 
Cuban  army  and  a  general  submission  of  the  people 
to  the  temporary  authority  of  the  United  States, 
pending  the  organisation  of  an  independent  civil 
government.  Before  its  work  began,  Domingo 
Mendez  Capote,  late  vice-president  of  the  "  Cuban 
Republic,"  took  the  place  of  Portuondo  as  the  pre- 
siding officer.  The  assembly  also  created  a  com- 
mission of  five  members,  with  General  Calixto 
Garcia  at  its  head,  to  visit  Washington  and  represent 
the  interests  of  Cuba  and  the  wishes  of  its  people 
before  the  President  and  Congress  of  the  United 
States,  with  reference  to  proceedings  for  the  organ- 
isation of  a  permanent  system  of  administration. 
Captain-General  Blanco  resigned  after  the  arrange- 
ments for  evacuation  were  concluded,  and  his  suc- 
cessor. General  Adolfo  Jimenez  Castellanos  was 
the  last  Spanish  governor-general.  Thus  the  long 
struggle  for  the  independence  of  Cuba  was  brought 
to  a  close,  and  four  hundred  years  of  Spanish  sov- 
ereignty in  the  western  world  ended  almost  where 
it  began  after  the  first  discoveries  of  Columbus. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 


NATURAL  ASPECTS   AND    RESOURCES   OF  JAMAICA 


A  LITTLE  less  than  ninety  miles  south  of  the 
eastern  part  of  Cuba  lies  the  island  of  Jamaica, 
third  in  size  of  the  Greater  Antilles.  It  is  about 
one  hundred  and  forty-five  miles  long  from  South- 
East  Point  at  the  eastern  end  to  South  Negril  Point 
in  the  west.  Its  extreme  width,  where  it  runs  down 
into  the  promontory  of  Portland  Point  on  the  south, 
is  fifty-three  miles,  but  the  general  width  of  the 
middle  section  is  about  forty-five  miles.  It  falls 
away  to  the  east  to  twenty  miles  and  then  tapers  to 
a  point,  and  toward  the  western  end  it  narrows 
more  abruptly,  chiefly  on  account  of  a  north-westerly 
trend  of  the  southern  coast.  Its  shape  is  sometimes 
compared  to  that  of  a  huge  turtle,  and  its  area  is 
about  4200  square  miles.  On  the  southern  shore 
and  well  toward  the  east,  in  the  angle  between  the 
wide  and  narrow  parts,  is  a  deep  inlet,  or  lagoon, 
almost  inclosed  on  its  southern  side  by  a  long  sand 
spit  which  leaves  a  channel  barely  one  hundred  and 
sixty  feet  wide.  Within  this  nearly  land-locked 
bay  is  Kingston,  the  capital  and  chief  city,  and  on 

199 


200  THE   WEST  INDIES 

the  inclosing  arm  of  the  sand  spit  was  that  Port 
Royal  where  revelled  and  rioted  the  slavers,  buc- 
caneers, and  pirates  in  the  wicked  old  times  of  ill- 
gotten  w^ealth. 

Here  is  still  the  chief  port,  and  the  plains  and 
slopes  which  extend  backward  and  upward  from  the 
shore  were  the  scene  of  the  old  colony  whence 
spread  the  plantations  and  the  groves  and  gardens 
that  constituted  the  Jamaica  of  former  days.  Thence 
have  scattered  the  communities  w^hich  now  occupy 
the  island.  The  coast  is  indented  with  many  other 
bays  which  afford  safe  harbours,  and  there  are  now 
several  ports  more  or  less  visited.  East  of  King- 
ston and  not  far  from  the  end  of  the  island  is  Port 
Morant,  and  a  few  miles  west  of  the  capital  is  Old 
Harbour,  above  which  Diego  Colon  planted  the 
capital  of  his  colony  and  called  it  Santiago  de  la 
Vega.  It  still  lingers,  and  has  always  been  called 
Spanish  Town  by  the  English.  Well  toward  the 
western  end  of  the  island  on  this  coast  is  Blueiields 
Bay  with  the  port  of  Savana  la  Mar,  and  at  Green 
Island  on  the  west  coast  is  a  small  harbour.  Pro- 
ceeding eastward  along  the  northern  coast  we  find 
in  succession  the  ports  of  Montego  Bay,  Falmouth, 
St.  Ann  Bay,  where  Columbus  spent  his  last  dreary 
months  in  the  western  world,  Port  Maria,  Annotto, 
and  Port  Antonio. 

Jamaica  has  no  such  fringe  of  coral  reefs  as  deco- 
rates the  edges  of  so  large  a  part  of  Cuba,  nor  are 
there  swamp  areas  along  its  coasts.  For  the  most 
part  it  is  "  rock-bound,"  and  in  many  places  steep 
ridges  and  broken  cliffs  come  to  the  water's  edge. 


ASPECTS  AND  RESOURCES   OF  JAMAICA       20I 

Off  to  the  south-east  are  the  Morant  Keys,  and 
forty  miles  to  the  south  is  Pedro  Bank,  a  long  sub- 
marine plateau,  from  which  some  scattered  keys 
rise  to  the  surface.  The  three  small  islands  to  the 
north-west,  called  the  Caymans — ^Grand  Cayman, 
Little  Cayman,  and  Cayman  Brae — belong  politically 
to  Jamaica,  though  geographically  they  are  part  of 
the  extension  of  Cuba  westward  from  Cape  Cruz, 
which  is  mostly  under  water.  These  islands  have 
an  area  of  less  than  two  hundred  square  miles,  and 
support  a  primitive  population  of  about  4300,  chiefly 
engaged  in  gathering  cocoanuts  and  green  turtles 
for  export. 

The  general  level  of  Jamaica  is  somewhat  higher 
than  that  of  Cuba,  and  a  larger  proportion  of  its 
area  is  occupied  by  mountain  ranges  or  broken  into 
ridges  and  deep  valleys.  The  geological  structure 
is  much  the  same,  consisting  of  a  shell  of  limestone 
over  a  skeleton  of  primitive  or  metamorphic  rock, 
which  protrudes  here  and  there  in  granite  or  mica- 
ceous schist,  interspersed  with  porphyry,  quartz,  and 
spar.  The  loftiest  mountain  range  is  in  the  east, 
and  as  one  approaches  the  island  from  that  direction 
a  delicate  blue  haze  hangs  over  these  heights,  which 
has  given  them  the  name  of  "  Blue  Mountains." 
Their  general  altitude  is  about  6000  feet,  but  they 
rise  to  7400  in  Cold  Ridge.  There  is  a  sharp  crest 
running  east  and  west,  from  which  the  slope  is 
gradual  toward  the  north,  breaking  into  lower  and 
lower  ridges  with  intervening  valleys,  and  spreading 
into  plains  here  and  there  down  to  the  coast,  while 
on  the  south  the  descent  is  more  abrupt  and  some- 


202  THE  WEST  INDIES 

times  stops  suddenly  in  overhanging  cliffs  at  the 
verge  of  the  sea.  Westward  of  an  elevation  of  4460 
feet,  called  Catherine  Hill,  there  is  a  depression, 
comprising  a  region  of  variegated  uplands,  beyond 
which  again  spring  ridges  and  broken  plateaus, 
sometimes  reaching  3000  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
Again  the  surface  falls  away,  and  the  widest  areas 
of  level  country  are  in  the  west.  There  is  a  depres- 
sion across  the  island  where  the  valley  of  the  Black 
River  opens  to  the  south  and  that  of  the  Great  River 
to  the  north,  and  beyond  that  are  more  highlands 
which  end  in  a  bold  promontory  called  the  Dolphin's 
Head,  3500  feet  high,  at  the  very  extremity  of  the 
island.  Traces  of  volcanic  action  in  remote  ages 
have  been  found  near  Spanish  Town. 

The  central  uplands  are  mostly  rugged  and  broken 
with  ravines  and  hollows.  There  are  wild  amphi- 
theatres and  secluded  gullies  sometimes  called 
"cockpits."  On  the  northern  slope  for  sixty  miles 
eastward  from  Great  River  is  a  region  of  gorges  and 
caverns  from  which  the  surface  water  often  disap- 
pears into  "  sightless  chasms,"  to  well  up  again  at 
widely  separated  places,  and  tumble  in  cataracts  or 
gush  and  flow  in  quiet  springs.  Sometimes  the 
course  of  subterranean  streams  can  be  traced  by 
these  outlets  in  a  manner  to  show  that  the  interior 
slopes  vary  from  those  of  the  surface.  There  are 
many  lakelets  among  the  hills,  but  often  the  water 
makes  its  way  through  clefts  in  the  limestone  shell 
into  underground  reservoirs.  Of  the  many  streams 
which  flow  from  the  mountains  and  hills  to  the  sea, 
few  are  entitled  to  be  called  rivers.     The  largest  is 


ASPECTS  AND  RESOURCES  OF  JAMAICA       203 

the  Black,  which  may  be  navigated  for  thirty  miles 
by  flat-bottomed  craft.  The  Minho,  or  Dry  River, 
comes  down  from  the  central  uplands  to  the  southern 
coast,  but  most  of  its  course  is  too  steep  or  too  shal- 
low for  useful  navigation,  and  all  streams  are  liable 
to  become  torrents  in  the  wet  season  and  to  dis- 
appear almost  entirely  in  the  dry.  The  Cobre, 
which  flows  into  the  lagoon  on  which  Kingston  is 
situated,  has  little  depth  of  water,  and  in  a  part  of 
its  course  runs  out  of  sight.  The  principal  streams 
on  the  north  are  the  Great,  the  Martha  Brae,  and 
the  White.  The  eastern  end  of  the  island  is  drained 
toward  the  north  by  the  Rio  Grande  and  toward  the 
south  by  the  Plantain  Garden  River,  both  small 
streams,  with  numerous  rivulets  running  into  them. 
There  are  some  flat  spaces  on  the  island  described 
as  plains  or  vales.  The  largest  of  these  is  the 
"  Plain  of  Liguanea,"  which  includes  the  region  of 
Kingston  and  Spanish  Town.  On  the  north  of  the 
mountains  is  the  plain  of  "  Thomas  in  the  Vale," 
and  in  the  east  the  "  Vale  of  Bath." 

Minerals  have  been  found  concealed  within  the 
rocky  structure  of  Jamaica,  but  no  systematic  exam- 
ination of  their  whereabouts  or  their  extent  has  ever 
been  made.  There  have  been  unprofitable  efforts  at 
mining  of  copper,  iron,  and  lead  ;  traces  of  gold  and 
silver  have  been  found,  and  there  are  deposits  of  co- 
balt and  antimony;  but  whether  there  are  riches  to 
be  dug  from  the  earth  is  yet  to  be  ascertained.  There 
is  plenty  of  ungarnered  wealth  on  the  surface.  Much 
of  the  mountain  region  is  covered  with  forests,  con- 
taining mahogany,  rosewood,   lignum-vitae,   ebony, 


204  THE   WEST  INDIES 

satinwood,  and  cedar,  as  well  as  logwood,  fustic, 
and  others  which  afford  dyestuffs.  The  palm  and 
the  bamboo  are  common,  and  the  silk  cotton  and 
the  pimento  are  almost  characteristic  of  this  island, 
— both  trees  of  beauty,  and  the  latter  furnishing  large 
supplies  of  that  aromatic  product,  allspice.  It  is  a 
wide-spreading  and  picturesque  evergreen.  One 
variety  of  the  palm,  the  Palma  Christi,  is  a  source 
of  castor  oil. 

The  general  verdure  and  vegetation  that  richly 
clothes  the  island  is  mostly  that  common  to  these 
tropic  lands  of  the  Caribbean  Sea.  There  is  a 
great  variety  of  ferns — some  great  tree-ferns — in 
the  mountains,  and  orchids  lavishly  decorate  the 
forests,  while  a  profusion  of  flowering  plants  and 
shrubs  delight  the  eye,  including  the  aloe,  the  yucca, 
and  the  datura,  which  are  not  so  common  elsewhere. 
Maize  grows  luxuriantly,  and  willingly  yields  two 
or  three  crops  a  year  to  the  industrious,  and  of  pro- 
saic vegetables  and  fruits  there  is  no  end.  The  list 
suggests  a  lesson  in  geography  or  a  passage  from  the 
encyclopaedia  —  yams,  plantains,  cassava,  ochra, 
arrowroot,  cacao,  ginger,  breadfruit,  tamarinds, 
mangoes,  pineapples,  oranges,  lemons,  and  so  on, 
and  so  on.  Nearly  all  European  vegetables  can  be 
raised  successfully  on  the  higher  lands,  and  guinea 
grass  waves  profusely  over  wide  stretches  of  pasture- 
land,  making  cattle-raising  an  easy  and  profitable 
process.  A  few  plants  were  brought  from  Africa  in 
the  old  slave-trading  days,  including  the  poisonous 
horse  bean,  which  was  used  in  weird  incantations, 
and  to  which  the  superstitious  blacks  still  attribute 


ASPECTS  AND  RESOURCES  OF  JAMAICA       205 

miraculous  qualities.  Out  of  the  porous  branches 
of  the  "  trumpet  tree"  they  make  the  Koromanti 
flute,  whose  sweet  and  melancholy  notes  are  so 
familiar  among  them.  But  for  a  long  time  the  soil 
of  the  fertile  plains,  valleys,  and  hillsides  of  Jamaica 
has  been  mainly  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  those 
two  exotic  plants,  the  sugar  cane  and  the  coffee 
bush,  because  they  afforded  the  most  profitable 
crops  in  the  days  of  slave  labour.  Latterly  there 
has  been  an  increase  of  tobacco,  cacao,  and  fruits. 

Of  animal  life  there  is  plenty,  as  in  all  tropic 
climes  where  the  land  teems  with  vegetation ;  but, 
like  the  other  islands,  Jamaica  is  poor  in  native 
quadrupeds.  Of  what  she  originally  had  there 
remains  the  agouti,  some  lingering  remnants  of  the 
monkey  tribe,  and  a  pestilent  breed  of  rats  which 
no  ingenuity  has  been  able  to  exterminate.  The 
mongoose  was  introduced  from  the  East  to  attempt 
the  task,  but  it  has  given  so  much  attention  to 
catching  snakes  and  birds  and  to  sucking  eggs  and 
multiplying  its  own  species  that  it  has  become  al- 
most as  much  of  a  nuisance  as  the  rodents  it  was 
expected  to  destroy.  There  is  the  alligator  and  the 
usual  variety  of  lizards,  including  the  ugly  but  edible 
— for   those   who   like  that  sort  of  thing — iguana. 

The  land  crab  is  particularly  multitudinous,  and  in 
the  spring  his  armies  emerge  from  the  rocks  and 
cliffs  and  march  to  the  coast  for  the  annual  cere- 
mony of  depositing  eggs  in  the  sand  at  the  edge  of 
the  surf.  The  males  lead  the  way  and  stand  guard, 
and  when  the  young  are  hatched  the  hosts  return 
through  the  thickets  and  woods  to  their  retreats  in 


2o6  THE  WEST  INDIES 

the  interior,  encountering  many  perils  and  enemies 
on  the  way.  MilHons  of  them  are  fortunately  de- 
voured, or  there  would  soon  be  no  room  for  anything 
else.  There  are  objectionable  reptiles  and  insects, 
but  few  that  are  noxious,  though  the  scorpion  and 
centipede  are  uncommonly  large  and  vicious.  There 
are  several  varieties  of  fireflies  that  illumine  the 
night.  The  seal  and  manatee  are  found  on  the 
coast,  turtles  are  abundant,  and  the  waters  swarm 
with  fish.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  waterfowl, 
and  birds  of  the  air  are  many,  including  pigeons  and 
parrots  and  others  of  brilliant  plumage,  and  over 
twenty  species  of  song  birds.  The  domestic  animals 
of  Europe  were  introduced  early  and  have  always 
thrived,  many  of  them  running  wild  in  the  uplands. 
The  climate  of  Jamaica  has  some  peculiarities  of 
its  own,  and  differs  considerably  on  the  two  sides 
of  the  central  mountain  range,  especially  in  the 
eastern  part,  and  on  the  different  levels  above  the 
sea.  The  moisture  brought  by  the  trade-winds  is 
precipitated  much  more  heavily  on  the  northern  than 
the  southern  side,  and  while  the  annual  rainfall  on 
the  north  slope  of  the  Blue  Mountains  is  about  one 
hundred  inches,  it  is  only  forty-four  at  Kingston^ 
and  the  plains  about  Spanish  Town  are  subject  to 
drought.  There  are  practically  two  wet  seasons  of 
six  or  eight  weeks  each, — in  May  and  June  and  in 
October  and  November, — with  a  period  of  compara- 
tive dryness  between,  much  addicted,  however,  to 
sudden  and  violent  storms  of  short  duration.  It  is 
in  this  interval,  too,  that  the  hurricane  is  apt  to 
break  loose  and  sweep  with  devastating  force  over 


ASPECTS  AND  RESOURCES  OF  JAMAICA       20/ 

this  and  other  islands.  In  all  parts  of  the  wet 
season  there  are  times  of  heavy  rain,  accompanied 
by  terrific  thunder  and  lightning.  From  Novem- 
ber to  April  the  climate  is  genial,  and  seldom  dis- 
turbed by  sudden  or  violent  changes. 

The  temperature  may  be  said  to  be  equable  at  all 
times.  At  Kingston  the  recorded  extremes  of  the 
year  are  66°  and  92°,  with  74°  as  the  mean.  The 
ordinary  range  in  the  lowlands  in  the  hot  season  is 
from  about  75°  to  85°,  and  in  the  cool  season  some 
ten  degrees  lower.  At  Up  Park,  two  hundred  and 
twenty-five  feet  above  the  sea  level,  the  average  of 
the  temperature  is  a  fraction  above  81°  in  the  hot 
season  and  75°  in  the  coolest  part  of  the  year.  At 
Newcastle,  where  the  English  troops  are  now  sta- 
tioned, 3800  feet  above  the  sea,  the  average  is  68° 
in  the  hot  season  and  61°  in  the  cool.  There  are 
still  higher  levels  where  the  range  is  from  40°  to 
50°.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  humidity  in  the  air  a 
large  part  of  the  time,  and  vapours  accumulate  in 
masses  over  the  mountains  and  sometimes  spread  a 
decided  chill  through  the  uplands.  In  the  coast 
plains  there  is  generally  a  sea  breeze  in  the  daytime 
and  a  land  breeze  at  night,  which  contributes  to 
equalise  the  temperature.  The  nights  are  rarely 
uncomfortable,  and  the  most  oppressive  time  is  from 
seven  or  eight  to  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning,  after 
the  land  breeze  dies  down  and  before  the  sea  breeze 
springs  up. 

Much  question  is  made  of  the  healthfulness  of 
this  and  other  tropical  climates,  but  it  is  as  much  a 
matter  of  altitude  as  of  latitude,  and  more  a  matter 


2o8  THE   WEST  INDIES 

of  habit  than  of  inevitable  conditions.  There  are 
places  in  Jamaica  which  are  subject  to  fever  and 
other  maladies,  but  on  the  whole  the  island  is  very 
salubrious.  Diseases  due  to  miasma  and  malarial 
exhalations  are  lessened  with  the  improvement  of 
drainage  and  the  cultivation  of  soil,  and  only  about 
one  fourth  of  the  island  has  yet  been  reduced  to 
cultivation.  The  health  of  cities  depends  mainly 
upon  sanitary  arrangements,  which  have  not  been 
so  much  neglected  in  English  as  in  Spanish  colonies. 
The  safety  of  the  individual  depends  largely  upon 
adapting  his  dress,  diet,  and  general  regimen  to  the 
conditions  of  the  tropics,  and  not  trying  to  pursue 
habits  of  living  and  of  working  there  which  are  fitted 
for  a  colder  and  more  changeful  climate. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


HISTORY   AND   PRESENT   CONDITION   OF   JAMAICA 


THE  early  history  of  Jamaica  has  been  fairly 
covered  by  the  accounts  of  colonising,  buc- 
caneering, and  slave-trading.  The  town  of  Sevilla 
del  Oro,  established  by  the  first  Spanish  colonists 
under  Juan  d'Esquivel  in  1509,  was  close  by  the 
Bay  of  St.  Ann,  the  Santa  Gloria  of  Columbus,  near 
the  middle  of  the  north  coast,  and  the  spot  is  still 
marked  by  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  church.  But  the 
permanent  Spanish  colony  was  on  the  southern 
plain  of  Liguanea,  backed  by  a  ridge  of  hills  of  the 
same  name,  and  its  capital,  founded  in  1525  by 
Diego  Colon,  was  the  Santiago  de  la  Vega  which 
the  English  called  Spanish  Town,  and  retained  as 
the  capital  of  their  colony  until  1869.  During  the 
old  wars  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  time.  Sir  A.  Shirley 
made  an  attack  upon  Jamaica,  but  did  not  occupy 
it,  and  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  one  Colonel  Jack- 
son from  St.  Kitt's  plundered  and  nearly  destroyed 
Santiago  of  the  Plain.  Later  on,  the  island  was 
coolly  partitioned  among  "  eight  noble  families," 
but  no  respect  was  paid  to  their  title  when,  under 

209 


2IO  THE  WEST  INDIES 

Cromwell's  administration  in  1655,  Penn  and  Ven- 
ables  finally  got  possession  and  an  English  colony 
was  planted.  By  that  time  the  Spanish  had  ex- 
terminated the  original  population  and  had  them- 
selves become  reduced  to  about  1500  persons,  with 
an  equal  number  of  slaves,  and  were  chiefly  engaged 
in  cultivating  cacao.  Most  of  the  Spaniards  took 
refuge  in  Cuba,  while  the  negroes  fled  to  the  mount- 
ains and  became  the  nucleus  of  the  maroons. 

The  first  British  colonists  were  a  rude  lot,  and 
speedily  the  buccaneering  and  slave-trading  era  set 
in,  and  Port  Royal  was  founded  at  the  end  of  the 

Palisades,"  as  the  sand  spit  inclosing  the  bay  was 
then  called,  as  the  headquarters  of  the  most  iniquit- 
ous combination  of  enterprises  ever  countenanced  by 
a  civilised  nation.  As  the  traffic  became  lucrative, 
the  place  attracted  adventurers  from  every  quarter, 
and  "  Port  Royal  itself,"  says  an  English  historian, 
"  united  to  more  than  royal  opulence  the  worst  vices 
and  the  lowest  depravity  that  ever  disgraced  a  sea- 
port ;  nor  could  anything  else  be  expected  in  a  city 
whose  most  honoured  denizens  were  buccaneers, 
most  welcome  visitors  slave-traders."  But  a  terrible 
retribution  seemed  to  await  the  sinful  city  of  the 
sand  spit.  On  the  7th  of  June,  1692,  near  the  hour 
of  noon,  while  the  assembly  was  in  session  and  the 
people  were  occupied  as  usual  with  their  schemes  of 
money-getting,  or  squandering  their  gains  in  revelry, 
while  the  waters  glittered  in  the  tropic  sun  and  the 
summer  air  was  filled  with  a  placid  calm,  there  came 
a  sudden  roar,  followed  by  a  dreadful  rumbling,  as 
if  the  mountains  were  shaken  by  a  tremendous  ex- 


.  _i 


HIS  TOR  Y  A  ND    CONDI  TION  OF  J  A  MA  ICA       2 1 1 

plosion  beneath  their  very  foundations;  and  before 
the  startled  citizens  could  gather  their  wits  together 
an  earthquake  of  awful  energy  rolled  through  the 
depths  under  their  feet.  "  The  Palisades  "  rocked 
and  heaved,  houses  tumbled  in  ruins,  the  waves 
leaped  over  the  land,  carrying  vessels  with  them, 
and  the  sand  spit  sank  from  its  ancient  level. 

When  the  tumult  was  over,  a  frigate  had  been 
hurled  over  houses  and  landed  high  and  dry,  houses 
were  submerged  beneath  the  waves,  where  some  of 
them  remained  visible  for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years, 
and  the  mangled  remains  of  buildings  and  water 
craft  were  mingled  over  the  dead  bodies  of  3000  of 
the  inhabitants.  Only  the  fort  and  about  two  hund- 
red houses  remained,  and  the  next  year  the  new 
city  of  Kingston  was  founded  on  the  flat  land  within 
the  bay  and  at  the  foot  of  the  slopes  where  it  now 
stands.  Port  Royal  was  further  scourged  by  a 
pestilence  that  sprang  from  the  decomposing  bodies 
of  the  unburied  dead.  Shortly  after  these  disasters, 
in  1694,  a  French  fleet  landed  soldiers  near  the  east- 
ern end  of  the  island,  who  ravaged  the  country  about 
Port  Morant.  In  171 2,  a  terrific  hurricane  swept 
over  Kingston  and  the  remnant  of  Port  Royal,  al- 
most wiping  them  from  the  face  of  the  earth. 

The  Spanish  made  some  feeble  efforts  to  recover 
their  colony,  but  the  principal  disturbance  in  the 
history  of  Jamaica  for  two  centuries  came  from  the 
Africans,  who  had  been  forced  from  their  own  coun- 
try to  be  slaves  in  this  distant  land.  The  little 
remnant  that  remained  to  the  Spaniards,  when  they 
were    driven    out,    established    themselves   in   the 


212  THE  WEST  INDIES 

mountains  and  relapsed  into  barbarism,  if  they  had 
ever  been  lifted  out  of  it.  Some  of  the  many  thou- 
sands brought  from  Africa  by  the  slave  ships  escaped 
and  joined  these  "  maroons."  Many  of  them  were 
unreclaimed  pagans  from  the  Guinea  coast,  from 
Koromanti  and  the  Cameroons,  and  they  established 
savage  communities  in  their  stronghold  and  made 
raids  for  murder  and  plunder  upon  the  white  settlers. 
About  1730,  united  under  a  chief  called  Cudjo,  they 
became  such  a  terror  to  the  colonists,  who  were 
numerous  only  in  their  slave  property,  that  two 
regiments  were  added  to  the  military  force  in  the 
island  for  the  special  purpose  of  subduing  them. 
An  irregular  war  was  carried  on  for  several  years, 
marked  by  barbarous  atrocities  on  both  sides.  One 
method  of  fighting  the  maroons  was  to  track  them 
with  bloodhounds,  and  each  military  barrack  had  a 
pack  of  dogs,  "  provided  by  the  churchwardens  of 
the  respective  parishes."  The  Mosquito  Indians 
were  also  employed  in  hunting  down  the  negroes. 

Finally,  in  1739,  Governor  Trelawney  brought 
about  a  pacification,  and  regular  articles  were  signed. 
Two  reservations  of  land,  one  of  1000  and  one  of 
1 500  acres,  were  granted  to  the  maroons  and  their 
descendants  in  perpetuity,  upon  which  they  could 
maintain  complete  independence  on  certain  condi- 
tions. They  were  to  refrain  from  depredations 
upon  the  whites,  and  they  agreed  to  surrender  run- 
away slaves,  receiving  a  premium  of  fifteen  dollars 
in  each  case  for  capturing  them,  while  there  was  to 
be  a  severe  penalty  for  harbouring  fugitives.  This 
naturally    produced    antagonism  between    the    free 


HISTORY  AND   CONDITION  OF  JAMAICA       213 

Africans  and  the  slaves,  as  was  intended.  The  ma- 
roons had  the  superstitious  and  savage  instincts  and 
pagan  practices  of  their  ancestors,  and  nothing  was 
done  to  rescue  them  from  barbarism,  while  the 
slaves  on  the  plantations  were  so  inhumanly  treated 
that  there  were  repeated  attempts  at  insurrection. 
One  of  these,  near  Port  Maria  on  the  northern 
coast,  in  1760,  resulted  in  an  attack  upon  the  fort, 
the  killing  of  the  sentinel,  and  the  seizing  of  arms 
and  ammunition,  with  which  the  negroes  began  an 
indiscriminate  slaughter  of  the  whites.  The  colon- 
ists banded  together  for  self-defence,  with  the  aid 
of  the  military  and  some  help  from  the  maroons, 
who  were  bound  by  their  treaty  to  render  it  in  such 
an  emergency,  and  put  down  the  revolted  bondmen 
with  burnings,  hangings,  and  massacres,  and  such 
horrors  of  torture  as  it  is  sickening  to  relate. 

In  1795,  there  was  another  serious  trouble  with 
the  maroons,  growing  out  of  the  whipping  of  two  of 
those  of  Trelawney  Town  for  stealing  a  pig.  They 
would  have  put  up  with  any  reasonable  punishment 
for  such  an  offence,  but  public  whipping  by  the 
hangman,  who  was  a  negro,  was  an  "  indignity  "  to 
the  whole  maroon  community  on  the  Trelawney 
Reservation.  They  had  already  been  exasperated 
by  a  law  which  gave  validity  to  negro  testimony 
against  them,  though  it  would  not  be  received  to 
support  any  charge  against  a  white  man ;  and  lat- 
terly they  had  been  strictly  confined  to  their  limits, 
though  formerly  allowed  to  wander  at  will  so  long 
as  they  did  not  violate  the  laws  to  which  they  had 
agreed  to  submit.     After  the  incident  of  the  stolen 


214  THE   WEST  INDIES 

pig  and  the  public  whipping  there  were  threats  of  an 
outbreak,  which  a  hot-headed  governor,  Lord  Bal- 
carres,  proceeded  to  suppress  before  it  came.  Merely 
because  the  maroons  demanded  redress  for  their 
"  indignity,"  he  recalled  troops  that  had  just  been 
sent  away,  declared  martial  law,  and  surrounded  the 
rebellious  community,  thereby  arousing  among  all 
the  settlements  a  dread  of  a  general  rising  that 
might  include  the  slaves  on  the  plantations,  who 
were  always  in  a  restless  mood  at  such  a  time. 

The  maroons  refused  to  surrender,  and  held  out  in 
their  fastnesses  until  menaced  with  bloodhounds 
from  Cuba.  Under  the  dread  of  these,  when  they 
found  that  a  hundred  of  them  had  been  brought  from 
Havana,  they  yielded  to  General  Walpole,  agree- 
ing to  a  treaty  which  bound  them  to  ask  the  king's 
pardon  on  their  knees,  to  occupy  thereafter  such  a 
reservation  in  any  part  of  the  island  as  might  be 
assigned  to  them,  and  to  deliver  up  all  slaves  who 
had  joined  them,  in  return  for  which  their  lives  would 
be  spared  and  they  would  not  be  transported  from 
the  island.  Ten  days  were  allowed  for  collecting 
their  families  and  making  the  required  submission, 
and  because  they  were  unable  to  get  in  all  their 
number  within  the  stipulated  time,  Lord  Balcarres, 
in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  General  Walpole, 
had  six  hundred  of  them  sent  to  Nova  Scotia. 
There  they  were  found  to  be  not  half  so  bad  as  they 
had  been  represented ;  in  fact,  they  became  quite 
harmless,  but  their  forcible  expatriation  has  always 
been  counted  by  the  other  maroons  as  a  breach  of 
faith  and  a  grievance. 


HISTORY  AND   CONDITION  OF  JAMAICA       21  5 

It  may  be  said  here  that  maroons  have  continued 
to  exist  upon  reservations  in  the  mountains  of  Ja- 
maica, with  certain  defined  treaty  rights,  and  that 
they  have  continued  to  have  causes  of  complaint,  or 
at  least  to  make  complaints  and  threaten  trouble. 
The  latest  occasion  of  trouble  was  an  encroachment 
upon  land  allotted  to  them  by  treaty  in  the  Annotto 
Bay  district,  but  not  occupied  by  them  until  they 
found  it  had  been  for  years  in  "  adverse  possession  " 
of  a  white  man.  The  court  decided  against  their  title, 
and  was  upheld  by  the  governor  notwithstanding 
the  treaty. 

A  regular  colonial  government  was  established  for 
Jamaica  in  1661,  with  a  governor-general  appointed 
by  the  Crown  and  a  legislative  assembly,  which  was 
elected  in  the  island.  The  suffrage  was  confined  to 
the  planters  and  slave-owners,  and  for  about  two 
hundred  years  they  formed  an  oligarchy  which  ruled 
virtually  without  restraint,  though  nominally  under 
the  laws  of  Great  Britain.  As  the  slaves  had  no 
rights  and  white  colonists  were  few,  this  system 
worked  smoothly.  When  the  Earl  of  Carlisle  was 
governor  in  1678,  the  population  then  numbering 
about  8000  whites  and  10,000  negroes,  it  was  de- 
termined to  exact  an  annual  tribute  of  ;^8ooo,  or 
about  $40,000,  and  to  curtail  the  privileges  of  the 
council.  In  a  few  years  the  privileges  were  restored 
and  the  revenue,  reduced  to  $30,000,  was  to  be  used 
in  paying  salaries  in  the  colony.  In  1672,  a  mono- 
poly of  the  slave  trade  was  granted  to  the  Royal 
African  Company,  and  about  the  same  time  the 
cultivation  of  the  sugar  cane  began.     In  the  century 


2l6  THE   WEST  INDIES 

following,  there  was  a  great  multiplication  and  ex- 
tension of  plantations  devoted  almost  wholly  to  this 
profitable  crop,  and  a  vast  increase  in  the  number  of 
slaves  by  whom  the  labour  in  the  fields  and  in  the 
mills  was  almost  wholly  performed  under  white 
overseers  and  slave-drivers. 

The  political  history  of  the  last  century  was  barren, 
save  for  the  occasional  visits  of  hostile  privateers  or 
pirates,  and  the  great  alarm  caused  in  1782  when  the 
French  and  Spanish  fleets  were  preparing  for  an  at- 
tack upon  the  island.  The  people  were  saved  from 
that  serious  peril  by  the  great  victory  of  Rodney  over 
De  Grasse  off  Dominica,  and  their  gratitude  was  long 
embodied  in  a  statue  of  Rodney  in  Spanish  Town, 
which  was  transferred  to  Kingston  when  that  became 
the  capital,  and  now  stands  in  the  Victoria  market- 
place. When,  near  the  end  of  the  last  century,  the 
agitation -for  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  began,  it 
had  no  more  vigorous  opponents  than  the  planters 
of  Jamaica,  the  life  blood  of  whose  prosperity  had 
been  slave  labour.  When  slavery  itself  was  abol- 
ished, they  deemed  themselves  and  their  fair  island 
forever  ruined.  It  did  have  a  disastrous  effect  upon 
the  sugar  planters.  They  had  been  absolutely  de- 
pendent upon  the  negroes  for  labour,  and  these  had 
been  so  treated  that  most  of  them  refused  to  work 
on  the  plantations  as  hired  men.  They  sought 
small  holdings  of  land  for  themselves,  and  many  of 
them  "  squatted  "  in  the  ample  spaces  that  were 
unoccupied,  away  from  the  cultivated  tracts.  No 
political  rights  had  been  granted  to  them ;  they  re- 
ceived no  more  social   recognition   or  religious  or 


HISTORY  AND    CONDITION  OF  JAMAICA       21/ 

educational  care  than  before,  and  nothing  was  done 
to  conciliate  them.  On  the  other  hand,  there  had 
been  no  white-labour  force  built  up  in  the  island, 
while  Cuba  continued  her  competition  with  slave 
labour. 

To  some  extent  coolies  were  brought  from  India 
and  China  under  contract,  but  this  did  not  coun- 
teract the  depression  under  which  the  sugar  es- 
tates sank  into  decay.  The  owners  left  them  in 
the  hands  of  agents,  and  most  of  the  whites  who 
could  get  away  emigrated,  while  the  blacks  took  to 
multiplying  as  never  before.  The  absentee  planters 
became  embarrassed,  and  their  estates  were  heavily 
encumbered  by  the  liens  of  merchants  who  made 
advances  to  keep  them  going;  and  the  Encumbered 
Estates  Act  of  1854  being  applied  to  them,  many 
were  sold  out  and  divided  up.  The  large  sugar 
plantations  which  numbered  eight  hundred  and  fifty- 
nine  in  1805,  were  only  three  hundred  in  1865.  The 
freed  negroes  were  more  and  more  becoming  small 
land-owners,  and  were  even  beginning  to  raise 
sugar  cane  on  a  small  scale,  uniting  to  support  one 
cheap  mill  to  thirty  of  their  little  farms.  In  later 
years  they  increased  the  scale  of  these  operations 
and  obtained  improved  machinery. 

Trouble  between  the  whites  and  negroes  did  not 
cease  with  emancipation.  The  very  year  before  the 
passage  of  the  Abolition  Act  in  England  there  was 
a  serious  rising  of  slaves,  due  to  a  belief  on  their 
part  that  they  had  already  been  freed  by  law  but 
were  kept  in  bondage  by  the  masters  and  would  not 
escape  without  an  effort  of  their  own.     The  revolt 


2l8  THE   WEST  INDIES 

was  attended  by  the  usual  outrages  and  put  down 
with  the  wonted  merciless  rigour.  The  slaves  burned 
and  destroyed  a  large  amount  of  property  but  took 
few  lives,  while  1500  of  their  number  were  shot, 
hanged,  or  otherwise  put  to  death.  Memory  of 
these  events  and  of  the  old  plantation  life  did  not 
tend  to  make  a  docile  class  of  hired  labourers  of  the 
emancipated  negroes;  and  the  few  remaining  whites 
looked  upon  them,  and  were  disposed  to  treat  them, 
much  as  they  did  in  the  old  slavery  days.  In  1865, 
there  came  what  has  been  called  an  "  insurrection  " 
of  the  blacks,  which  was  put  down  in  the  old  manner. 
In  the  eastern  part  of  the  island  there  was  much 
discontent  occasioned  by  obstacles  put  in  the  way  of 
holding  or  acquiring  land,  by  taxation,  and  by  an  al- 
leged failure  of  the  local  court  to  do  justice  to  the  ne- 
groes. A  coloured  preacher  named  Gordon,  who  was 
a  member  of  the  legislative  assembly,  harangued 
meetings  of  the  discontented,  and  inflamed  the 
prevalent  sense  of  wrong  into  a  violent  opposition 
to  the  constituted  authorities.  The  result  was  an 
uprising  near  Port  Morant  which  was  really  a  riot, 
but  which  created  a  sudden  dread  of  a  general  negro 
insurrection  in  which  the  whites  would  be  massa- 
cred. Governor  Eyre  declared  martial  law,  and 
treated  the  revolt  with  crushing  promptness  and 
severity,  for  which  he  was  severely  condemned  in 
England.  The  mob  had  killed  eighteen  white  men 
and  injured  thirty-one.  In  its  suppression,  four  hun- 
dred and  thirty-eight  negroes,  including  Gordon, 
were  put  to  death,  and  six  hundred  were  sentenced 
to  the  lash   or  other  severe  corporal  punishment. 


HISTORY  AND    CONDITION  OF  JAMAICA       2ig 

Governor  Eyre  was  recalled,  and  a  commission 
was  sent  out  to  investigate,  which  in  a  measure 
justified  his  course.  An  effort  to  have  him  indicted 
for  murder  in  London  was  defeated,  Lord  Chief- 
Justice  Cockburn  making  thereon  a  somewhat  fa- 
mous exposition  of  martial  law  and  the  power  of 
courts-martial. 

This  event  was  followed  in  1866  by  a  radical 
change  in  the  government  of  Jamaica.  It  had  had 
a  "  constitution,"  or  "  charter,"  with  large  local 
rights,  which,  however,  had  been  exercised  by  a 
very  small  class.  Now  it  was  made  a  Crown  colony, 
with  a  governor  and  council  appointed  by  the  home 
government,  and  practically  exercising  all  important 
authority.  This  was  modified  in  1884.  Since  then 
there  has  been  a  governor  and  a  privy  council  for 
executive  purposes,  and  a  legislative  council  with 
six  official  and  nine  elective  members,  though  the 
governor  can  increase  the  number  of  official  or  ap- 
pointed members  to  nine.  There  is  a  mayor  and 
town  council  in  the  city  of  Kingston,  and  elsewhere 
local  administration  is  in  the  hands  of  parochial 
boards,  each  of  which  has  two  ofificial  members  and 
from  nine  to  fifteen  elective  members  according  to 
the  size  or  importance  of  the  parish.  Their  powers 
are  for  local  regulation  merely.  Suffrage  is  qualified 
by  requirements  of  taxation,  income,  or  property- 
holding  which  reduce  the  electorate  to  not  more 
than  one  in  thirty  or  forty  of  the  population. 

The  island  is  divided  into  three  counties:  Surrey 
in  the  east,  Middlesex  constituting  the  central  sec- 
tion, and  Cornwall  in  the  west.     There  are  fourteen 


220  THE  WEST  INDIES 

parishes,  including  Kingston,  which  has  only  eight 
square  miles  and  consists  mainly  of  the  city  of 
Kingston.  The  others  in  the  county  of  Surrey  are 
St.  Andrew,  with  an  area  of  one  hundred  and 
seventy-five  square  miles  and  35,000  inhabitants; 
St.  Thomas,  in  the  east,  two  hundred  and  eighty 
square  miles,  34,000  inhabitants  ;  and  Portland, 
three  hundred  square  miles  and  30,000  inhabitants. 
The  figures  for  population  are  taken  from  the  latest 
authoritative  source,  and  are  doubtless  somewhat 
below  the  actual  number  at  present.  Middlesex 
county  is  divided  into  five  parishes:  St,  Catherine, 
area  four  hundred  and  sixty-five  square  miles,  popu- 
lation 61,000;  St.  Mary,  area  two  hundred  and 
thirty-six  square  miles,  population  40,000;  St.  Ann, 
area  four  hundred  and  eighty  square  miles,  popula- 
tion 46,000;  Clarendon,  four  hundred  and  eighty-two 
square  miles,  population  50,000;  and  Manchester, 
three  hundred  square  miles  and  48,000  population. 
In  Cornwall  there  are  five  parishes:  St.  Elizabeth, 
four  hundred  and  eighty-six  square  miles  and  54,- 
000  inhabitants;  Westmoreland,  three  hundred  and 
eighteen  square  miles  and  49,000  inhabitants;  for 
Hanover  the  figures  are  one  hundred  and  thirty  and 
30,000;  for  St.  James,  two  hundred  and  thirty-four 
and  34,000;  and  for  Trelawney,  three  hundred  and 
twenty-four  and  32,000.  The  parochial  division  is 
for  administrative  purposes  only.  The  Church  is 
not"  established,"  and  a  comparatively  small  minor- 
ity of  the  people  are  attached  to  the  "  English 
Church. ' '  Since  the  abolition  of  slavery  the  dissent- 
ing sects  have  done    missionary  work  among  the 


HISTORY  AND   CONDITION  OF  JAMAICA       221 

blacks,  and  the  Methodists  and  Baptists  far  out- 
number the  Episcopalians,  while  there  are  a  good 
many  Moravians,  Of  Roman  Catholics  there  are 
very  few.  Education  has  been  left  mainly  to  private 
initiative,  and  is  largely  carried  on  by  the  churches 
and  religious  teachers.  Elementary  instruction  is 
becoming  quite  general. 

There  is  a  judiciary  system  on  the  English  model. 
The  governor-general  is  the  chancellor,  but  there 
are  a  vice-chancellor  and  chief-justice,  two  puisne 
judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  seven  district  courts, 
four  stipendiary  magistrates,  and  a  police  magis- 
trate of  the  city  of  Kingston.  There  is  a  constab- 
ulary of  looo  members,  and  the  military  force 
maintained  in  the  island  is  ordinarily  from  1200  to 
1500  men.  The  yearly  revenue  of  the  colony  is 
about  ;^8i5,ooo,  and  the  expenditures  ;^837,ooo. 
The  public  debt  was  ;^2, 175,000  in  1896. 

Kingston  has  long  been  the  chief  seaport  and  the 
one  commercial  centre  of  Jamaica,  and  since  1869  it 
has  been  the  seat  of  the  colonial  government,  though 
the  governor  maintains  his  residence  on  high  land 
outside  of  the  city.  It  has  about  40,000  inhabit- 
ants, scarcely  one  third  whites,  and  though  well 
supplied  with  water  from  the  Liguanea  Hills  and 
fairly  well  kept,  it  is  a  rather  dingy  and  unattractive 
place  on  close  inspection.  There  are  no  notable 
buildings  architecturally,  but  the  old  parish  church 
dates  from  the  foundation  of  the  city  and  has  con- 
tained the  tomb  of  Admiral  Benbow  since  1702. 
There  is  a  creditable  court-house,  hospital,  public 
library  and  museum,  and  a  fine  market  and  landing 


222  THE   WEST  INDIES 

place  of  recent  design,  by  which  the  Rodney  statue 
stands.  Out  of  town  there  are  attractive  groves 
and  gardens,  including  a  large  botanical  garden  and 
acclimatisation  forest,  and  among  the  heights  of  the 
interior  are  some  delightful  resorts.  The  old  Port 
Royal  site  used  to  have  the  military  station,  which 
has  been  moved  up  to  Newcastle  to  save  the  troops 
from  fever,  and  it  is  still  occupied  by  a  fort  and 
naval  station  and  the  appurtenances  thereof.  The 
British  Government  is  at  the  present  time  renewing 
and  strengthening  the  fortifications  and  construct- 
ing a  dockyard  and  naval  depot  within  the  harbour. 

Spanish  Town,  the  old  capital,  is  a  decayed  place 
of  about  6000  people,  in  the  midst  of  a  monotonous 
plain,  which  would  be  arid  but  for  irrigation  from 
^he  Cobre  River.  Port  Maria  is  the  largest  place 
cin  the  north  coast,  and  has  about  7000  inhabitants. 
Falmouth,  at  the  mouth  of  Martha  Brae  River,  has 
3000  people,  and  Montego  Bay,  which  is  the  port  of 
the  maroon  district  of  Trelawney  Town,  has  5000. 
These  northern  ports  have  neither  deep  nor  spacious 
harbours,  and  are  chiefly  engaged  in  the  fruit  trade, 
though  Port  Antonio  and  Port  Morant  near  the 
eastern  end  of  the  island  are  the  principal  exporting 
points  for  oranges  and  bananas. 

Of  the  15,000  or  16,000  whites  in  the  island,  mostly 
English,  about  five  sixths  live  in  and  about  Kings- 
ton. There  are  a  few  in  the  other  seaport  towns 
and  at  the  head  of  plantations  or  trading  places  in 
the  interior,  but  the  bulk  of  the  population,  now 
estimated  at  nearly  700,000,  is  made  up  of  negroes 
with  little  mixed  blood,  mostly  speaking  the  Eng- 


HISTORY  AXD    CONDITION  OF  JAMAICA       223 

lish  language,  and  amenable  to  discipline  and  in- 
struction, though  little  accustomed  to  it  until  recent 
years.  There  are  perhaps  20,ocxd  Asiatic  coolies. 
Industry  and  trade  have  languished  much  of  the 
time  since  the  abolition  of  slavery,  on  account  of 
the  difficulties  of  the  labour  question,  the  depression 
of  the  sugar  interest,  and  the  slow  progress  of  ad- 
justment to  new  conditions,  the  reasons  for  which 
are  not  far  to  seek.  The  imports  of  Jamaica  amount 
to  about  $12,000,000  a  year,  substantially  one  half  of 
which  come  from  Great  Britain  and  the  other  half 
from  the  United  States.  The  exports  are  valued  at 
$10,000,000,  of  which  coffee  now  figures  as  the 
largest  item  at  $1,500,000,  sugar  next  at  about  $1,- 
000,000,  and  rum  $800,000.  The  relative  decline  in 
sugar  in  recent  times  is  very  great.  Tobacco  is  of 
growing  importance,  and  there  is  a  chance  for  a  far 
greater  variety  in  the  cultivated  productions  of  the 
island.  There  is  the  beginning  of  a  railroad  system, 
a  main  stem  from  Kingston  to  Spanish  Town  with 
branches  into  the  interior  north  and  west,  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty  miles  in  all,  but  scarcely  more 
than  one  fourth  of  the  land  has  been  brought  under 
cultivation.  Industry  is  almost  wholly  confined  to 
garnering  the  products  of  the  soil  and  sending  them 
out  of  the  country.  Telegraphic  communication 
has  been  well  established  throughout  the  island  and 
with  the  rest  of  the  world. 

There  has  long  been  a  state  of  discontent  in 
Jamaica  on  account  of  the  depressed  condition  of 
trade,  which  is  attributed  largely  to  the  subsidising 
of  beet-root  sugar  in  Europe  and  the  duty  on  cane 


224  THE   WEST  INDIES 

sugar  in  the  United  States.  Relief  has  been  sought 
through  British  legislation  and  governmental 
changes.  The  confederation  of  the  British  colonies 
in  the  West  Indies  has  been  proposed,  political  con- 
nection with  Canada  has  been  advocated,  and  even 
annexation  to  the  United  States  has  been  agitated. 
It  is  a  question  whether  the  real  difficulty  is  not  a 
lack  of  white  colonisation,  a  mistaken  treatment  of 
the  freed  negroes,  and  a  want  of  enterprise  in  vary- 
ing the  industries  of  the  island  since  great  planta- 
tions of  sugar  and  coffee  have  become  unprofitable. 
Whether  there  are  conditions  of  climate  and  race 
which  make  the  difficulty  insuperable  is  not  an 
appropriate  subject  of  discussion  here,  but  is  an 
interesting  question  for  those  whom  it  most  con- 
cerns. 


CHAPTER  XX 


THE   ISLAND    OF   HAITI 


THE  submarine  ridge  from  which  the  island  of 
Jamaica  rises  stretches  eastward  in  the  ocean 
depths  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  miles  and  then 
comes  to  the  surface  directly  south  of  the  eastern 
point  of  Cuba  in  the  long  and  mountainous  peninsula 
which  constitutes  the  south-western  prong  of  the 
island  of  Haiti.  In  like  manner  the  ridge  of  which 
the  whole  length  of  Cuba  forms  a  part  continues 
under  the  Windward  Passage  for  sixty  miles  and 
comes  to  light  in  the  shorter  north-western  prong  of 
Haiti.  The  deep  trough  between  these  great  ridges 
runs  in  between  the  lofty  peninsulas  to  form  the 
Gulf  of  Gonaive,  ending  in  the  triangular  Bay  of 
Port-au-Prince.  The  southern  peninsula,  terminat- 
ing in  Cape  Tiburon,  is  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
long,  and  varies  from  twenty  to  forty  miles  in  width ; 
and  the  northern,  which  ends  with  that  great  natural 
embankment  called  Mole  St.  Nicholas,  is  fifty  miles 
long  and  about  forty  wide.  The  gulf  between  is 
eighty  miles  across,  and  is  divided  near  the  entrance 
to  Port-au-Prince  Bay  by  Gonaive  Island,  which  is 
15  225 


226  THE  WEST  INDIES 

thirty-six  miles  long  by  eight  and  a  half  wide. 
From  this  there  is  a  rampart  of  coral  reefs  to  either 
shore,  broken  by  passages  which  leave  channels  suf- 
ficient for  safe  entrance  to  the  bay. 

The  whole  length  of  the  island  of  Haiti,  from 
Cape  Tiburon  to  Cape  Engano  at  the  extremity  of 
its  single  eastern  peninsula,  is  four  hundred  and 
seven  miles.  Its  greatest  width,  where  it  extends 
down  to  Cape  Beata  on  the  southern  coast,  is  one 
hundred  and  sixty-five  miles;  but  its  form  is  very 
irregular,  narrowing  toward  the  east,  and  its  area  is 
about  28,250  square  miles.  This  is  nearly  two 
thirds  of  the  area  of  Cuba  and  more  than  six  times 
that  of  Jamaica.  The  entire  coast-line  is  about 
1500  miles,  and  is  indented  with  many  bays  and 
inlets,  some  of  them  affording  good  harbours. 
Within  the  gulf  and  to  the  north  of  Port-au-Prince 
is  Gonaive,  and  there  is  an  inlet  at  Mole  St.  Nicho- 
las and  another  on  the  north  coast  at  Cape  Haitien. 
Farther  east  is  Manzanillo  Bay,  about  the  middle 
of  the  north  coast  Puerto  Plata,  and  near  the  eastern 
end  of  the  island  the  bays  of  Escocesas  and  Samana, 
separated  by  a  narrow  peninsula,  barely  attached  to 
the  mainland.  The  Bay  of  Samana,  which  is  about 
thirty  miles  long  by  ten  miles  wide,  is  partly  filled 
with  coral  reefs,  but  it  has  ample  spaces  of  deep 
water  and  a  liberal  entrance  channel. 

On  the  southern  coast  the  most  important  indenta- 
tion is  that  at  Santo  Domingo,  where  the  Ozama 
River  empties,  and  the  largest  is  formed  by  the  two 
bays  of  Ocoa  and  Neyba,  which  receive  the  waters 
of  the  Yaqui  Chico.     On  the  southern  shore  of  the 


THE  ISLAND   OF  HAITI  22/ 

long  peninsula  in  the  south-west  are  Jacmel,  Baianet, 
St.  Louis,  and  Aux  Cayes,  and  on  its  northern  or 
gulf  side  are  Jeremie  and  Baraderes.  Here  and  there 
are  fringing  reefs  and  islets  besides  those  which  ob- 
struct the  Bay  of  Samana  and  the  Gulf  of  Gonaive 
at  the  two  ends  of  the  island.  The  Ile-a-Vache, 
which  is  nine  miles  long  by  two  wide,  lies  off  the  south 
shore  of  the  south-west  peninsula  near  St.  Louis 
Bay,  with  reefs  between  it  and  the  coast.  Li  the 
extreme  south,  opposite  Cape  Beata,  is  the  island  of 
Beata,  five  miles  by  two,  amid  a  cluster  of  islets. 
Within  the  western  gulf  in  the  Bay  of  Baraderes  is 
Great  Cayemite,  five  miles  by  three.  The  island  of 
Tortuga  which  lies  off  the  north-western  peninsula, 
the  original  haunt  of  the  buccaneers,  is  twenty-two 
miles  long  and  five  miles  wide.  The  island  of  Na- 
vassa  in  the  Windward  Passage  has  been  claimed  by 
Jamaica,  and  is  only  important  for  its  guano  deposits. 
South  of  the  eastern  end  of  Haiti  is  the  considerable 
island  of  Saona,  or  Adamanay,  fifteen  miles  by  three 
and  a  half,  and  to  the  west  of  that,  Catalina. 

The  island  of  Haiti  is  the  culmination  of  the  great 
mountain  system  rising  out  of  the  depths  of  the 
ocean  in  the  Greater  Antilles.  It  contains  in  the 
interior  grander  and  loftier  heights  than  are  to  be 
found  anywhere  in  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  Running  through  the  length  of 
the  island  from  Mole  St.  Nicholas  slightly  south 
of  east  to  Cape  Engaflo,  is  an  almost  continuous 
range,  rising  near  the  centre  of  the  island  to  an 
altitude  of  9000  feet  or  more  in  the  loftiest  peaks  of 
the  Sierra  de  Cibao,  where  that  old  Carib  cacique 


228  THE   WEST  INDIES 

Coanabo  had  his  retreat.  The  mean  altitude  of  this 
long  ridge,  the  backbone  of  the  island,  is  over  6000 
feet,  and  the  central  peaks,  Jicoma,  Gallo,  and 
Entre  Rios,  rise  to  a  height  of  gcxDO  feet.  Isolated 
from  the  main  ridge  on  its  southern  side  are  the 
great  Pico  de  Yaqui,  or  Rucillo  (gray),  and  Loma 
Tina,  which  have  never  been  explored  and  are  be- 
lieved to  be  more  than  10,000  feet  high.  For  the 
most  part  this  great  mountain  range  is  covered  with 
dense  forests  whose  depths  have  hardly  been  pene- 
trated since  the  aborigines  disappeared. 

There  is  another  mountain  range  near  the  northern 
coast,  taking  its  name  from  that  Monte  Cristi  upon 
which  Columbus  looked  with  so  much  awe  that  he 
gave  it  that  imposing  name.  This  flat  height  itself 
springs  sheer  from  the  sea  to  about  eight  hundred 
feet,  and  from  that  level  the  range  rises  eastward  to 
Sella  de  Caballo  ("  Horse  Saddle"),  3900  feet,  and 
again  after  a  depression  to  Campo  Diego,  4000  feet, 
and  then  it  falls  away  into  variegated  uplands  stretch- 
ing to  the  peninsula  of  Samana.  In  that  peninsula, 
almost  severed  from  the  island  as  it  is,  this  northern 
mountain  system  terminates  in  the  abrupt  eleva- 
tions of  Monte  Diablo  and  Pilon  de  Azucar("  Sugar 
Loaf  "),  which  are  about  2000  feet  high. 

There  is  also  a  southern  mountain  system,  but  it 
is  wholly  west  of  the  Bay  of  Neyba  and  the  valley 
of  the  river  which  flows  into  it.  It  is  connected  with 
the  Cibao  range  by  a  group  of  uplands  stretching  to 
the  south-west,  which  is  cut  by  the  great  river  val- 
ley. The  Loma  Paciencia  and  the  Loma  Barranca 
here  rise  to  the  height  of  6260  and  7540  feet,  respect- 


THE  ISLAND   OF  HAITI  229 

ively ;  and  toward  the  west  lower  ridges  and  broken 
plateaus  continue  to  the  great  bay,  while  still  farther 
south  and  near  the  coast  a  longer  and  loftier  range 
runs  out  into  the  peninsula  to  Cape  Tiburon.  From 
a  densely  wooded  region  of  hills  near  Cape  Beata,  it 
begins  with  the  Sierra  Baburuco  and  rises  to  a  height 
of  8900  feet  in  the  Sierra  de  la  Selle,  sending  a  spur 
to  the  north-west  toward  Port-au-Prince,  which  cul- 
minates in  Mont  Noir,  or  Prince's  Peak,  5000  feet 
high.  The  western  extension  is  interrupted  by  a 
rather  deep  depression,  and  then  springs  up  in  the 
Montagnes  de  la  Hotte,  of  which  the  highest  peak 
is  7400  feet,  and  ends  abruptly  in  the  Tiburon  head- 
land, 2870  feet  above  the  sea. 

Not  only  is  Haiti  the  most  mountainous  of  the 
Antilles,  but  it  is  the  only  one  that  has  much  in 
the  way  of  rivers.  It  has  little  of  that  porous  shell 
of  limestone  which  we  have  encountered  in  the  other 
islands,  and  in  which  the  copious  rainfall  gets  dis- 
sipated and  lost ;  but  it  is  endowed  with  a  rugged 
structure  of  rock,  not  primitive,  indeed,  but  of  the 
secondary  formations, — slate,  conglomerate,  and 
metamorphic  masses,  sometimes  broken  by  protrud- 
ing syenite.  Between  the  great  central  mountain 
ridge  and  the  Monte  Cristi  range  on  the  north, 
stretching  all  the  way  from  Manzanillo  Bay  to  the 
Bay  of  Samana,  one  hundred  and  forty  miles,  is 
that  broad  valley  which  Columbus  called  La  Vega 
Real.  Through  its  western  part  flows  the  great 
Yaqui  River,  coming  down  from  the  heights  of 
Cibao  and  turning  westward  to  the  bay  at  Monte 
Cristi's  feet.     A  sHght  elevation  near  the  middle  of 


230  THE   WEST  INDIES 

this  royal  plain  turns  the  watershed  eastward  into 
the  Yuna,  which  makes  its  way  to  the  Bay  of  Sa- 
mana.  From  the  southern  slope  of  Cibao  the  Neyba, 
or  Yaqui  Chico,  flows  to  Neyba  Bay,  and  from  the 
same  central  mountain  mass  the  Artibonite,  largest 
stream  in  all  the  island,  makes  its  way  westward 
into  the  Gulf  of  Gonaive.  These  rivers  have  many 
affluents  draining  the  valleys  and  plains,  but  they 
are  navigable  to  no  great  distance.  Worth  mention- 
ing also  is  the  Rio  Ozama,  whose  golden  sands  led 
to  the  founding  of  the  city  of  Santo  Domingo  at  its 
mouth.  It  has  a  tributary  called  the  Brujuelas,  or 
"  Witch,"  which  is  one  of  the  few  streams  in  the 
island  that  slink  underground;  but  just  here  is  a 
stretch  of  limestone  full  of  holes.  The  whole  coast 
region  east  of  Santo  Domingo  City  is  low  and  flat. 
In  the  south-west,  north  of  the  Sierra  Baburuco 
and  the  Sierra  de  la  Selle,  and  between  them  and  the 
opposing  ridge  on  the  north,  is  a  level  depression 
reaching  almost  from  Neyba  Bay  to  the  Bay  of  Port- 
au-Prince,  containing  two  lakes,  about  two  hundred 
feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  larger,  which  the 
aborigines  called  Xaragua  and  the  Spaniards  Enri- 
quillo,  or  Little  Henry,  from  the  native  chief  whose 
last  refuge  was  an  islet  in  the  lake,  is  called  Etang 
Sale  by  the  French  negroes  of  the  region,  because 
its  water  is  saline.  It  is  even  inhabited  by  marine 
animals,  as  sharks  and  porpoises,  and  was  once  con- 
nected with  the  sea.  It  is  very  deep,  and  has  an 
area  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-six  square  miles, 
but  in  times  of  flood  it  is  united  with  the  other  lake, 
a  smaller  body  of  water,  the  Laguna  de  Fundo,  or 


THE  ISLAND   OF  HAITI  23 1 

the  Etang  Saumache  ("  Brackish  Pond  ").  Together 
they  have  a  length  of  sixty  miles  and  a  breadth  of 
nine  or  ten  miles.  Farther  south  in  the  same  de- 
pression, but  at  a  higher  level,  is  a  fresh-water  lake, 
the  Icotea  de  Limon,  which  receives  the  torrents  of 
the  Baburuco  Mountains  and  is  thought  to  send  the 
surplus  water  to  Lake  Enriquillo  through  under- 
ground channels.  To  the  east  of  this  long  depres- 
sion and  near  the  delta  of  the  Neyba  River  is  Lake 
Rincon. 

In  this  island  was  the  Bohio,  or  land  of  gold,  to 
which  Columbus  was  lured  on  as  he  came  down 
through  the  Bahamas  and  left  the  coast  of  Cuba  be- 
hind him  after  a  vain  search  for  the  Grand  Khan  of 
Cipango;  and  for  a  time  it  proved  to  be  a  land 
of  gold,  much  of  the  precious  metal  being  sent  to 
Spain,  until  the  mines  failed  for  lack  of  labour,  and 
adventurous  spirits  wandered  off  to  Mexico  and  the 
South  American  coast.  What  mineral  wealth  is  still 
concealed  in  the  mountains  is  practically  unknown, 
for  there  has  been  no  systematic  effort  to  find  out 
for  several  generations.  There  have  been  no  real 
explorations  or  surveys,  and  no  application  of 
modern  methods,  and  the  means  of  communication 
in  the  interior  are  little  better  than  they  were  in  the 
days  of  the  first  discoverers.  There  has  been  so 
much  political  disturbance  and  so  little  progress  for 
two  centuries  that  Haiti  is  still  an  undeveloped 
land. 

We  know  that  there  is  not  only  gold,  but  silver, 
copper,  iron,  platinum,  mercury,  and  other  valuable 
minerals  and    useful   and    precious   stones;  but    to 


232  THE  WEST  INDIES 

what  extent  enterprise  and  labour  might  turn  these 
into  available  wealth  we  cannot  tell.  We  know  also 
that  in  the  dense  and  almost  interminable  forests 
there  are  vast  supplies  of  those  same  valuable  woods 
that  are  to  be  found  on  the  other  large  islands.  The 
soil  is  everywhere  fertile,  even  on  the  highest  slopes 
and  levels  that  have  been  laid  bare,  but  as  yet  the 
great  stretches  of  rich  plain  are  cultivated  only  in 
patches.  The  natural  productions  of  the  vegetable 
world  are  the  same  tropical  plants  in  variety  and 
profusion  that  we  have  found  in  Cuba  and  Jamaica; 
and  the  exotic  sugar-cane  and  coffee  grow  with  the 
same  luxuriance,  and  have  long  afforded  the  staple 
crops.  Cotton  and  tobacco  are  indigenous,  but 
neglected.  The  natural  resources  of  the  island,  if 
fairly  developed,  would  sustain  ten  times  the  present 
population  in  comfort. 

There  is  nothing  exceptional  or  peculiar  in  the 
animal  life  of  Haiti.  It  has  the  same  lack  of  in- 
digenous quadrupeds  and  mammals  as  the  other  An- 
tilles, but  has  rather  more  of  the  domestic  animals 
gone  wild,  including  dogs  and  cats  as  well  as  cattle 
and  hogs.  The  undisturbed  wilderness  and  great 
stretches  of  unoccupied  land  give  them  a  vast  range 
of  freedom.  There  is  no  great  variety  or  abund- 
ance of  birds,  but  many  snakes  and  reptiles,  mostly 
harmless,  and  insects  in  plenty,  some  of  which  have 
unpleasant  ways.  The  island  stands  open  to  the 
north-east  trade-winds,  and  on  account  of  the  great 
elevations  on  its  surface,  the  contrasts  in  its  climate 
are  somewhat  stronger  than  in  the  other  islands. 
The  general  rainfall  is  heavy,  especially  on  the  north- 


THE  ISLAND   OF  HAITI  233 

ern  slopes,  and  the  wet  season  lasts  from  May  till 
October;  but  there  are  sheltered  plateaus  where 
very  little  rain  comes  and  vegetation  is  nourished  by 
heavy  dews.  There  is  much  heat  and  moisture  in 
some  of  the  lowlands  near  the  coast,  and  at  Port- 
au-Prince  the  temperature  ranges  from  65°  to  100" 
Fahrenheit.  There  is  no  more  delightful  or  salu- 
brious climate  in  the  world  than  is  to  be  found  in 
much  of  the  upland  country,  and  the  plains  that 
border  the  river  valleys  are  always  healthful.  If  the 
cities  and  towns  are  not  so  in  the  wet  and  hot  sea- 
son, it  is  largely  due  to  lack  of  attention  to  sanitary 
and  hygienic  requirements. 

Haiti  has  been  several  times  shaken  in  spots  by 
violent  earthquakes.  About  once  in  a  century  some 
promising  town  has  been  quite  destroyed.  This 
happened  to  Concepcion  de  la  Vega  in  the  great  east- 
ern plain  in  I564,and  to  Port-au-Prince  on  the  west- 
ern bay  in  1 75 1.  In  1842,  Port-au-Prince  was  shaken 
into  ruins  by  convulsions  of  the  earth.  But  no  ex- 
ternal indications  of  volcanic  action  in  recent  ages 
have  been  found,  and  the  hurricane  does  not  strike 
this  island  with  the  violence  which  it  sometimes  ex- 
hibits toward  the  lower  Caribbees  and  Jamaica  and 
Cuba.  It  does  not  lie  across  the  favourite  path  of 
that  raging  monster  of  the  air. 

Espanola,  or  "  Little  Spain,"  was  the  mother  of 
the  Spanish  colonies  in  the  West  Indies.  After  the 
excitement  of  the  discovery  days  and  the  eager 
quest  for  gold,  when  Diego  Colon  at  Santo  Do- 
mingo assumed  the  airs  of  a  royal  ruler,  expeditions 
were  sent  to  Jamaica  under  Esquivel  and  to  Cuba 


234  THE  WEST  INDIES 

under  Velasquez,  while  De  Leon  went  over  to 
Puerto  Rico  to  begin  its  colonial  career;  and  the 
Cuban  expedition  was  the  starting-point  of  Cortez 
and  the  conquest  of  Spanish  possessions  on  the 
mainland.  The  mother  colony  itself  settled  down  to 
quiet  with  no  history  separable  from  that  of  the  dis- 
covery, the  colonising,  and  the  doings  of  the  traders 
and  buccaneers  who  came  to  infest  these  waters. 
Ovando  explored  along  the  southern  coast  and 
founded  a  town  called  Salva  Tierra  near  the  present 
Aux  Cayes,  but  the  Spanish  settlements  were  mostly 
within  easy  reach  of  Santo  Domingo  or  in  the  great 
plain  over  the  mountains,  which  sloped  to  the  sea  at 
Samana  and  at  Monte  Cristi.  After  the  wretched 
natives  had  died  out  and  negro  bondmen  had  been 
brought  in,  plantation  life  began  its  infancy  and  its 
slow  growth. 

In  1585,  Drake  captured  the  city  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo, but  only  to  exact  ransom  and  sail  away;  and 
the  languishing  colony  was  occasionally  harried  on 
its  coasts  by  marauding  enemies  of  Spain  or  of  all 
peaceable  mankind.  After  the  French  refugees  from 
St.  Christopher  joined  the  first  "  boucaniers"  in  pos- 
session of  Tortuga,  the  Spanish  drove  them  out 
more  than  once,  with  the  result  that  they  finally  set- 
tled upon  the  western  end  of  the  larger  island,  at 
Petit  Goave  on  the  north  side  of  the  southern  pen- 
insula within  the  gulf.  They  held  on  there  and 
were  joined  by  other  Frenchmen.  They  established 
plantations  and  bought  negro  slaves,  trading  chiefly 
with  the  buccaneers.  Unlike  the  other  colonists, 
they  obtained  African  women  as  well  as  men,  and 


THE  ISLAND   OF  HAITI  235 

their  slaves  increased  in  number  spontaneously, 
instead  of  dying  out  on  their  hands,  and  had  a 
superior  physical  vigour.  The  colonists  built  a  fort 
at  the  head  of  the  bay  which  they  called  Port-au- 
Prince,  but  just  when  and  in  honour  of  what  prince 
seems  to  be  unknown.  But  these  Frenchmen  raised 
sugar  and  coffee  and  cotton  and  established  a 
flourishing  trade,  and  when  the  peace  treaty  of 
Ryswick  was  signed  in  1697,  Spain  was  fain  to  con- 
cede to  France  the  colony  which  had  grown  up  on 
the  western  end  of  "  Little  Spain."  The  French 
called  their  colony  St.  Domingue,  while  the  Spanish 
retained  the  name  of  Espanola,  or  Hispaniola;  and 
it  was  not  until  the  former  declared  its  independence 
that  it  assumed  the  old  native  appellation  of  Haiti 
for  itself.  After  the  Spanish  colony  had  passed 
through  its  transformation  to  a  like  state  of  inde- 
pendence, it  took  the  name  of  Santo  Domingo,  and 
each  of  the  two  republics  acquired  the  habit  of  call- 
ing the  whole  island  by  its  own  name.  Unfortun- 
ately, the  rest  of  the  world  has  accepted  both  names 
for  the  island  and  used  them  indiscriminately,  in- 
stead of  leaving  them  to  designate  the  two  nations, 
and  retaining  the  original  Spanish  title  in  its  Latin- 
ised form  for  the  whole  land. 

It  was  a  little  more  than  one  third  of  the  area  of 
the  island  that  was  ceded  to  France,  and  the  bound- 
ary was  not  definitely  fixed  until  1777,  and  has  been 
in  dispute  most  of  the  time  since.  The  two  colonies 
grew  side  by  side,  not  always  peaceably  when  their 
mother  countries  were  quarrelling,  but  without  any 
serious    contests    between    themselves.       But    the 


236  THE   WEST  INDIES 

French  colony  was  more  rapid  and  vigorous  in  its 
growth.  When  the  Revolution  of  1789  came  in 
France,  it  had  fully  twice  the  population  of  Espa- 
iiola,  and  far  more  than  twice  its  wealth  and  foreign 
trade.  Of  its  population  of  500,000,  38,360  were 
whites  of  European  origin,  28,370  were  free  persons 
of  colour,  mostly  mulattoes  with  white  fathers,  and 
the  rest  were  negro  slaves.  There  were  many  large 
plantations,  over  11,000,  it  has  been  said,  and  a 
flourishing  trade,  mostly  centred  at  Port-au-Prince. 
"  Colonial  produce,"  which  meant  chiefly  sugar, 
coffee,  and  cotton,  was  sent  to  Europe  and  ex- 
changed for  manufactured  articles,  and  many  of  the 
mulattoes  became  property-owners,  and  some  of 
them  received  a  good  education  in  France.  Mean- 
time the  Spaniards  at  the  other  end  of  the  island 
were  going  on  in  a  more  quiet  way  and  increasing 
much  more  slowly.  Their  plantations  were  fewer 
and  smaller,  and  they  raised  comparatively  little  for 
export ;  and  what  substance  they  had  was  mostly 
drawn  to  Spain. 

In  the  most  palmy  days  of  the  French  colony  of 
St.  Domingue  came  the  great  convulsion  in  France, 
for  which  generations  of  arbitrary  rule  and  oppres- 
sion of  the  mass  of  the  people  had  prepared  the  way. 
The  close  relations  which  the  colonists  had  kept  up 
with  the  mother  country  led  them  to  feel  the  thrill 
and  to  share  the  alarm.  The  friends  of  liberty  in 
the  motherland  bethought  them  of  the  slaves  of  the 
distant  colony  and  the  cruel  treatment  they  were 
said  to  have  been  subjected  to  by  the  lordly  plant- 
ers; and  the  society  of  "  Les  Amis  des  Noirs  "  was 


THE  ISLAND    OF  HAITI  237 

founded  in  Paris.  The  whites  in  the  island,  with 
the  exception  of  some  of  the  rich  planters — the 
"  petits  blancs, " — were  quite  ready  for  their  share 
of  liberty,  fraternity,  and  equality,  but  did  not  wish 
to  admit  the  coloured  brother  to  it.  When  the  an- 
cient regime  was  overturned,  the  white  colonists  were 
admitted  to  all  the  privileges  of  the  new  French  citi- 
zenship, but  the  free  people  of  colour  were  excluded. 
They  agitated  vigorously  for  equal  rights,  and  when 
these  were  denied  there  was  an  insurrection  led  by 
Vincent  Og6,  one  of  the  mulattoes  who  had  been 
educated  in  France  and  had  imbibed  there  the  new- 
born spirit  of  liberty.  The  revolt  was  put  down, 
and  Oge,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  Espafiola,  was 
given  up  by  the  Spaniards  and  broken  on  the  wheel, 
while  twenty-one  of  his  followers  were  hanged. 

This  by  no  means  allayed  the  excitement,  and  in 
response  to  the  efforts  of ' '  Les  Amis  des  Noirs  ' '  the 
French  Assembly  decreed  that  all  persons  of  colour 

born  of  free  parents  "  were  entitled  to  all  the 
privileges  of  citizens  of  France.  On  protest  of  the 
planters  the  government  delayed  putting  this  de- 
cree into  effect,  and  that  renewed  the  conflict  with 
increased  fury,  and  even  the  slaves  were  aroused  to 
insurrection.  This  so  alarmed  the  whites  that  they 
were  ready  to  concede  the  demand  of  the  mulattoes, 
when  the  Assembly  at  Paris  revoked  the  decree. 
This  threw  the  free  coloured  people  and  the  blacks 
together  in  a  common  resistance  to  the  authorities. 
Commissioners  were  sent  from  France  to  settle  the 
trouble,  but  found  it  too  much  for  them,  and  the 
Spaniards  took  the  opportunity  to  invade  the  colony 


238  THE   WEST  INDIES 

from  the  east,  while  the  English  attacked  it  from 
the  water,  capturing  Port-au-Prince  and  laying  siege 
to  Port  ^  la  Paix.  In  this  dilemma  the  French  com- 
missioner Sonthonax,  then  in  the  colony,  took  it 
upon  himself  to  proclaim  universal  freedom  in 
August,  1793,  his  action  being  ratified  and  confirmed 
the  next  year  by  the  national  convention  in  France. 

This  brought  the  whole  black  and  coloured  force  to 
the  side  of  the  new-born  republican  power  in  France, 
under  the  command  of  Francois  Dominique  Tous- 
saint,  ever  since  known  as  Toussaint  L'Ouverture. 
The  name  is  said  by  some  to  have  been  assumed  on 
account  of  the  opening  of  a  new  era  for  his  race,  and 
by  others  to  have  been  conferred  by  a  French  ofificer 
because  the  way  opened  wherever  he  appeared.  He 
was  a  full-blooded  negro,  a  slave  and  the  son  of 
slaves,  though  descended  from  an  African  prince ; 
but  with  a  slight  education  gained  in  his  master's 
family  he  had  in  these  stirring  times  developed  a 
genius  for  military  command  and  for  rule  over  the 
people  of  his  blood.  The  French  Government 
made  him  commander-in-chief  of  the  native  forces, 
the  Spanish  and  English  were  driven  out,  and  when 
by  the  treaty  of  Basle  in  1795  Espanola  was  given 
up  to  France,  Toussaint  L'Ouverture  became  virtual 
dictator  of  the  whole  island. 

The  black  ruler,  the  revolted  slave  of  a  few  years 
before,  developed  administrative  ability  as  remark- 
able as  the  military  capacity  that  he  had  shown. 
He  established  himself  in  the  old  palace  at  Santo 
Domingo  and  assumed  imposing  airs  of  state  with  a 
body-guard  of  1500  men  in  brilliant  uniform,  and 


THE   ISLAND    OF  HAITI  239 

a  council  of  nine  members,  of  whom  all  but  one 
were  white  planters  of  substance  and  capacity.  A 
constitution  was  drawn  up,  free  trade  was  declared, 
and  Toussaint  L'Ouverture  was  made  president  for 
life.  All  this  was  nominally  in  subjection  to  the 
authority  of  the  French  Republic,  but  there  was  a 
new  turn  of  affairs  in  France.  A  still  greater  genius 
for  war  and  for  the  rule  of  men  had  come  into  power 
there  as  First  Consul,  and  he  would  not  brook  the 
pretensions  of  the  black  upstart  of  Haiti,  who 
seemed  to  aim  at  an  independent  empire  of  his  own. 
Toussaint  in  fact  declared  the  independence  of  the 
island,  and  proclaimed  himself  the  supreme  chief  in 
July,  1801. 

Napoleon  sent  out  an  expedition  with  sixty-six 
ships  of  war  and  an  army  of  30,000  men  under  Gen- 
eral Leclerc  to  bring  the  revolted  colony  to  its  alle- 
giance. Leclerc  landed  at  Samana,  and,  finding  an 
opposition  that  he  could  not  overcome  by  force, 
tried  to  secure  the  submission  of  L'Ouverture  by 
diplomatic  proceedings,  in  which  the  two  sons  of  the 
black  chieftain,  who  had  been  in  France  for  their 
education  and  had  been  brought  over  with  the  ex- 
pedition, were  used  as  emissaries.  They  brought  a 
letter  from  the  First  Consul,  offering  great  honours 
to  the  negro  ruler  if  he  would  return  to  his  allegiance, 
but  he  chose  to  be  faithful  to  his  own  people.  He 
formally  abolished  slavery  and  established  a  system 
of  free  labour  under  which  those  who  worked  the 
plantations   were   to  have   one    third  of  the  crop. 

There  was  a  long  and  bloody  struggle,  and  the  pur- 
pose of  the  French  general  to  restore  slavery  as  well 


240  THE   WEST  INDIES 

as  the  sovereignty  of  France  was  finally  avowed. 
This  made  the  blacks  fight  with  desperation  for  the 
preservation  of  their  freedom.  The  conflict  was 
carried  on  mainly  in  the  old  French  colony  at  the 
western  end  of  the  island.  Yellow  fever  came  to 
the  aid  of  the  struggling  negroes  and  threatened  the 
French  army  with  destruction.  Then  General  Le- 
clerc  resorted  again  to  tricks  of  diplomacy.  Having 
won  over  the  two  black  generals  Dessalines  and 
Christophe  to  his  scheme  by  plausible  representa- 
tions, he  finally  induced  Toussaint  himself  to  con- 
sent, upon  solemnly  repeated  assurances  of  good 
faith,  to  a  plan  of  holding  a  representative  assembly 
of  the  people  of  the  island,  which  should  provide 
for  their  future  liberty  and  welfare.  Then  by  base 
pretences  Toussaint  L'Ouverture  was  enticed  to  a 
conference  in  Gonaive,  seized  and  carried  to  France, 
where  he  died  of  neglect  and  starvation  in  the  dun- 
geons of  the  Chateau  Joux. 

General  Leclerc  had  remained  behind  and  assumed 
the  title  of  governor-general,  but  the  insurrection 
broke  out  with  new  violence  under  Dessalines, 
Christophe,  and  other  lieutenants  of  Toussaint 
L'Ouverture.  On  the  death  of  Leclerc,  General 
Rochambeau  succeeded  to  the  command  and  con- 
tinued a  ruthless  policy.  Bloodhounds  were  brought 
from  Cuba  to  reinforce  the  French  army  and  hunt 
the  blacks  from  their  hiding-places,  while  a  raging 
epidemic  of  yellow  fever  rendered  the  army  itself 
well-nigh  helpless.  This  horrible  warfare  was  kept 
up  with  appalling  barbarity  and  suffering  on  both 
sides,  but  the  debilitated  French  soldiers  were  finally 


THE   ISLAND    OF  HAITI  24 1 

penned  up  at  Cape  Francois  (now  Cape  Haitien), 
and  forced  to  eat  their  Cuban  bloodhounds  or  die  of 
starvation  and  disease.  They  finally  surrendered, 
and  France  lost  the  greatest  of  her  West  Indian 
colonies  forever.  The  Haitians  formally  declared 
their  independence  anew  on  the  1st  of  January, 
1804,  ^rid  General  Dessalines  was  made  governor  for 
life  with  the  right  to  name  his  successor.  He  soon 
declared  himself  emperor,  with  the  title  of  Jacques 
I.,  and  proceeded  to  order  every  French  person  on 
the  island  to  be  put  to  death,  turning  out  to  be  such 
a  murderous  brute  that  in  1806  he  was  assassinated 
by  his  own  soldiers. 

Rival  negro  chiefs  then  divided  the  heritage. 
Christophe  established  himself  in  the  north-west  as 
"  chief  magistrate  for  life,"  with  his  capital  at  Cape 
Haitien,  but  in  181 1  he  proclaimed  himself  king 
in  that  domain  with  the  title  of  Henri  I.,  and  built 
a  strong  castle  and  a  pleasure  palace  some  distance 
from  the  coast.  In  the  meantime,  Spain,  with 
the  help  of  the  English,  had  recovered  nominal 
control  of  her  old  colony  in  the  east.  In  the 
south-western  peninsula,  a  mulatto  named  Petion 
held  sway  with  headquarters  at  Port-au-Prince.  He 
was  a  comparatively  wise  and  benign  ruler,  and  died 
in  1818  much  regretted  by  his  people.  In  1820,  the 
black  king,  Christophe,  shot  himself,  and  General 
Boyer  became  president  of  the  Republic  of  Haiti, 
which  now  included  both  sections  of  the  western 
end  of  the  island.  Its  independence  was  acknow- 
ledged by  France  in  1825,  upon  an  agreement  for 
the  payment  of  125,000,000  francs  to  indemnify 
16 


242 


THE   WEST  INDIES 


French  citizens  for  their  losses  of  property.  This 
was  afterwards  reduced  to  90,000,000  francs,  and 
long  rested  as  a  debt  upon  the  republic. 

In  1 82 1,  the  Colombian  flag  of  Bolivar  was  raised 
in  Santo  Domingo  and  its  independence  from  Spain 
was  declared ;  but  the  next  year,  to  save  itself  from 
being  forced  back  under  the  Spanish  sovereignty,  it 
yielded  to  General  Boyer's  attack  and  was  merged 
in  the  Haitian  Republic.  From  that  time  until  1844 
the  whole  island  continued  under  one  government 
as  the  Republic  of  Haiti,  but  in  the  latter  year  the 
separate  autonomy  of  Santo  Domingo  Avas  estab- 
lished under  the  title  of  the  Dominican  Republic. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE    REPUBLIC    OF   HAITI 

THE  boundary  between  the  two  republics  of 
Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo  begins  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Anses-k-Pitre  on  the  south  and  terminates  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Riviere  du  Massacre  on  the  north, 
but  it  is  irregular  in  its  course  and  has  been  much 
disputed.  Haiti  has  an  area  generally  stated  as 
10,204  square  miles,  including  the  islands  of  Tor- 
tuga,  Gonaive,  and  Ile-a-Vache.  It  is  divided  on 
the  French  system  into  departments,  arrondisse- 
ments,  and  communes.  The  latest  estimate  of  the 
population  is  1,210,000;  but  according  to  the  last 
official  statement,  the  six  departments  of  the  repub- 
lic and  the  number  of  inhabitants  were  as  follows : 
Nord,  250,000;  Nord  Quest,  70,000;  Artibonite, 
125,000;  Quest,  350,000;  and  Sud,  200,000. 

The  history  of  the  Haitian  Republic  has  been  one 
of  almost  constant  revolution  or  insurrection,  and 
the  constitution  has  been  several  times  modified. 
General  Boyer,  who  became  president  on  the  death 
of  Christophe,  or  Henri  I.,  "  King  of  the  North," 
in  1820,  and  who  succeeeded  not  only  in  uniting  the 

243 


244  THE   WEST  INDIES 

sections  of  the  west,  but  in  bringing  the  Spanish 
end  of  the  island  under  his  sway,  exercised  power 
in  an  arbitrary  fashion  until  a  growing  opposition 
broke  into  revolution  and  drove  him  out  in  1842. 
Two  years  later  the  old  Spanish  colony  revolted 
under  the  leadership  of  Juan  Pablo  Duarte,  and  set 
up  for  itself  as  an  independent  republic.  General 
Faustin  Soulouque,  the  new  ruler  of  Haiti,  tried  to 
bring  it  into  subjection  again  and  failed.  He  was  a 
violent  and  superstitious  African,  with  strong  pagan 
instincts  but  much  personal  power,  and  in  1849  ^^ 
declared  himself  emperor  of  Haiti  with  the  title  of 
Faustin  I.,  had  the  constitution  changed  to  fit  the 
case,  created  orders  of  nobility,  with  black  dukes, 
counts,  and  barons,  and  in  1850  was  crowned  with 
great  pomp  and  circumstance.  He  became  so  ex- 
travagant, despotic,  and  corrupt  that  in  1858  his 
empire  was  overthrown  and  the  republic  was  restored 
under  General  Fabre  Geffrard.  Soulouque  tried  to 
recover  his  ground,  but  soon  had  to  save  his  head  by 
taking  refuge  in  Jamaica. 

There  were  plots  against  Geffrard  and  an  attempt 
upon  his  life  which  resulted  in  the  killing  of  his 
daughter.  There  was  a  successful  revolution  in  1867, 
which  drove  him  to  Jamaica,  and  a  triumvirate  was 
formed  under  Generals  Nissage-Saget,  Chevalier, 
and  Salnave.  A  new  constitution  was  adopted 
and  Sylvestre  Salnave  was  made  president,  but 
this  led  to  division  and  tumult,  from  which  Nis- 
sage-Saget emerged  as  president.  General  Salo- 
mon, who  became  president  in  1879,  succeeded  in 
holding  power  for  eight  years,  putting  down  one 


THE  REPUBLIC  OF  HAITI  245 

serious  insurrection  in  1883,  and  in  getting  himself 
elected  again  in  1887;  but  the  ambitious  warriors 
and  statesmen  of  the  land  thought  he  had  enjoyed 
the  profits  of  power  long  enough,  and  there  was  a 
revolution.  One  of  the  rebel  leaders,  General  Le- 
gitime, assumed  the  part  of  dictator,  and  was  chosen 
provisional  president,  but  he  had  several  rivals  for 
the  glory  of  succeeding  the  banished  Salomon, 
among  them  Generals  Thelemaque,  Hippolyte,  and 
Manigat,  who  had  helped  to  bring  about  the  revo- 
lution. Thelemaque  was  killed,  and  Manigat  and 
Legitime  joined  the  exiles  in  Jamaica  to  plot  trouble 
for  the  successful  aspirant  for  presidential  honours. 
Louis  Modestin  Florvil  Hippolyte  became  the  chief 
magistrate  under  an  amended  constitution  in  1889. 
He  was  not  a  gentle  or  mild-mannered  person,  but 
had  a  rude  and  vigorous  capacity  for  government. 
He  was  constantly  on  the  watch  for  conspirators, 
and  prompt  in  crushing  any  resistance  to  his  power. 
Legitime  and  Manigat  succeeded  in  exciting  in- 
surrection a  number  of  times,  but  it  was  speedily 
suppressed,  and  certain  rebel  leaders  falling  into  the 
hands  of  Hippolyte  in  1891,  he  summarily  put  them 
to  death.  He  gained  a  reputation  for  bloodthirsti- 
ness  by  the  prompt  and  merciless  manner  in  which 
he  dealt  with  those  whom  he  regarded  as  traitors. 
In  1896,  he  died  of  apoplexy,  and  his  death  was 
kept  secret  until  his  successor  had  been  chosen  in 
the  person  of  his  secretary  of  war.  General  Tiresias 
Augustin  Simon  Sam.  Haiti  has  an  army  of  less 
than  7000  men,  but  every  person  conspicuous  in 
politics  or  public  life  seems  to  be  a  "  general." 


246  THE  WEST  INDIES 

Under  the  constitution  as  it  is  at  the  time  of  this 
writing,  the  president  is  elected  for  a  term  of  seven 
years  by  the  National  Assembly  in  joint  session  of 
the  two  houses.  The  Assembly  consists  of  a  Senate 
of  thirty-nine  members  and  a  House  of  Deputies  of 
ninety-five.  The  deputies  are  elected  for  a  term 
of  three  years  by  popular  vote  to  represent  the  com- 
munes, and  the  senators  are  elected  for  a  term  of  six 
years  by  the  House  of  Deputies  from  a  list  of  candi- 
dates furnished  by  the  president  and  a  college  of 
electors,  one  third  going  out  every  two  years. 

There  is  a  judicial  system  with  a  Court  of  Cassa- 
tion, which  is  the  tribunal  of  appeal,  a  superior  court 
at  the  capital  of  each  department,  and  subsidiary 
and  primary  courts  in  the  arrondissements  and  com- 
munes; and  the  framework  of  the  law  is  the  Code 
civil.  According  to  law,  education  is  gratuitous 
and  compulsory,  but  the  law  is  not  enforced,  and 
ignorance  is  general.  A  degenerate  French  patois 
is  in  common  use,  and  few  know  any  other  language, 
or  have  any  doubt  that  the  Haitians  are  as  intelli- 
gent and  highly  educated  as  any  people  on  the  face 
of  the  earth.  Most  of  them  have  a  patriotic  pride 
in  their  government,  which  is  always  arbitrary,  gen- 
erally inefificient,  and  notoriously  corrupt. 

Nine  tenths  of  the  million  and  more  of  free  and 
independent  citizens  are  of  pure  African  blood,  and 
most  of  the  rest  have  an  intermixture  of  it.  The 
French  whites  who  were  not  slaughtered  were  ex- 
pelled after  the  revolution,  and  no  alien  is  allowed 
to  own  land  in  the  republic.  The  religion  of  the 
old   French  colony   was   Roman   Catholic,   but  the 


THE  REPUBLIC  OF  HAITI  247 

slaves  were  not  very  thoroughly  inoculated  with  it, 
and  while  they  nominally  retained  it  in  their  state  of 
freedom,  it  became  deplorably  mingled  with  an  in- 
herited African  paganism.  Voudooism  and  the 
mystic  rites  of  Obeah  prevail  more  or  less  openly, 
with  all  the  horrid  practices  of  serpent  worship, 
sometimes  including  the  sacrifice  of  infants — "  the 
goat  without  horns  " — and  the  eating  of  human 
flesh.  Reports  of  heathen  practices  in  secret  places 
are  doubtless  exaggerated,  but  there  are  authentic 
accounts  of  the  hideous  orgies  which  attend  the  Vou- 
doo,  or  "  Vaudoux,"  worship;  and  serious  but  un- 
availing attempts  have  been  made  to  suppress  the 
cannibalism  which  is  still  a  feature  of  it. 

There  is  certainly  a  general  lack  of  enlightenment 
and  progress  in  the  Black  Republic.  Public  improve- 
ments are  almost  wholly  neglected  ;  the  roads  are  bad, 
and  the  bridges  so  dilapidated  as  to  be  generally 
avoided.  They  are  hardly  ever  renewed  or  repaired. 
The  villages  are,  as  a  rule,  slovenly  collections  of  shan- 
ties, and  most  rural  habitations  are  squalid  and  un- 
kempt. The  old  plantation  buildings  have  gone  to 
decay, and  industrial  enterprise  has  fled.  Agricultural 
and  commercial  methods  are  crude  and  primitive,  or 
negligently  conducted,  and  business  honour  is  as 
scarce  a  commodity  as  social  and  domestic  virtue. 
The  currency  of  the  nation  is  disordered  and  its 
finances  are  ignorantly  conducted ;  and  of  the  $9,- 
000,000  or  so  of  government  expenditures,  a  large  pro- 
portion is  misapplied  or  fraudulently  appropriated, 
while  corruption  in  the  collection  of  revenues  is  al- 
most universal.     Such  is  the  unqualified  testimony 


243  THE  WEST  INDIES 

of  competent  observers  who  have  spent  much  time 
in  Haiti. 

The  capital  of  the  republic,  which  is  also  the 
principal  port  and  the  chief  commercial  city,  is  Port- 
au-Prince  at  the  head  of  the  bay  which  penetrates 
so  deeply  into  the  western  end  of  the  island.  The 
French  built  a  fortification  here  at  an  early  date, 
but  the  city  was  not  founded  until  1749,  when  it  was 
called  L'Hopital.  The  old  colonial  capital  was 
Leogane,  which  has  an  outlet  on  the  bay  now  called 
^a  Ira.  Port-au-Prince  has  30,000  to  35,000  in- 
habitants, but  though  it  is  the  centre  of  nearly  all 
the  foreign  trade,  it  is  a  shabby,  ill-kept,  foul-smell- 
ing, and  most  unwholesome  place.  It  was  shaken 
to  pieces  by  an  earthquake  in  1842,  and  has  been 
several  times  nearly  burned  up,  but  it  retains  its 
flimsy  construction,  speedily  becomes  dingy  after 
being  rebuilt,  and  reeks  with  filth  at  most  times. 
Back  from  the  city  the  plain  of  Cul-de-Sac  once 
contained  flourishing  plantations  and  is  by  nature 
one  of  the  most  attractive  and  productive  stretches 
of  "land  in  the  whole  country.  The  port  of  St. 
Marc  to  the  north  of  the  capital  is  the  outlet  for  the 
coffee  gardens  and  mahogany  groves  of  the  lower 
valley  of  the  Artibonite.  Near  by  is  Gonaive, 
where  the  independence  of  Haiti  was  declared,  and 
whence  Toussaint  L'Ouverture  was  carried  to  his 
dismal  fate. 

There  is  a  good  harbour  at  Mole  St.  Nicholas, 
the  end  of  the  north-western  peninsula,  where 
Columbus  first  touched  this  great  island  and  where 
the  French  established  their  real  stronghold  before 


THE  REPUBLIC  OF  HAITI  249 

their  possession  was  conceded  by  the  Spaniards. 
Here  also  the  Acadians  from  Nova  Scotia  were  in 
temporary  exile  before  going  to  Louisiana.  On 
the  north  coast  opposite  Tortuga  is  Port-S,-la-Paix, 
the  "  Valparaiso  "  of  Columbus.  Cape  Haitien, 
farther  east,  has  a  flourishing  coffee  trade,  and  a 
few  miles  south  of  it  is  the  chateau  "  Sans  Souci," 
which  Christophe  established  as  his  royal  residence 
when  he  was  king.  The  most  eastern  port  is  Li- 
berte,  which  has  a  deep  harbour  and  is  largely  the 
shipping  point  for  dyewoods.  Along  the  southern 
peninsula  on  the  bay  side  are  a  number  of  small 
trading  places.  Grand  Goave,  Petit  Goave,  Barade- 
res,  Jeremie.  It  is  a  country  of  coffee  and  cacao 
culture.  At  Jeremie  were  the  ancestral  estates  of 
the  family  of  Alexandre  Dumas.  On  the  outer  side 
of  the  peninsula  beyond  Cape  Tiburon  are  several 
havens — Coteaux,  Port  Salut  (which  is  not  safe), 
Aux  Cayes,  Aquin,  and  St.  Louis.  Aux  Cayes  is 
the  place  from  which  Cromwell's  fleet  took  its  de- 
parture for  Jamaica,  and  at  which  Bolivar's  expedi- 
tion for  the  liberation  of  the  Spanish  colonies  in 
South  America  was  fitted  out  in  18 16.  There  is  so 
much  coast-line  to  Haiti  that  there  are  few  towns 
of  consequence  in  the  interior. 

Though  the  industrial  condition  is  so  backward  and 
trade  is  less  flourishing  than  in  former  times,  there  are 
still  exports  of  cotton,  coffee,  cacao,  mahogany,  dye- 
woods,  tortoise  shell,  and  a  few  other  products ;  and 
manufactured  wares  and  fabrics  are  imported  from 
Europe  and  some  provisions  and  cotton  goods  from 
the  United  States.     The  foreigrn  trade  amounts  to 


250 


THE   WEST  INDIES 


about  $i5,ocx),ooo  a  year,  of  which  $9,500,000  con- 
sists of  exports,  but  the  capacity  of  the  country  for 
profitable  production  is  scarcely  touched  by  the 
thriftless  population.  Political  conditions  and  a 
narrow  and  exclusive  policy,  dictated  by  jealousy 
and  fear,  keep  out  foreign  capital  and  enterprise  as 
well  as  the  civilising  influences  that  might  induce 
progress  and  elevation,  though  probably  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  full  freedom  of  the  blacks  in  the  experi- 
ment of  self-government,  for  which  they  were  so 
ill-prepared. 


CHAPTER  XXII 


THE   DOMINICAN   REPUBLIC 


THE  full  form  of  the  Spanish  title  "  Santo  "  was 
reserved  to  Dominicus  and  two  or  three  other 
special  worthies  in  the  calendar  of  saints,  and  the 
English  habit  of  abridging  it  to  "  San  "  in  the  case 
of  this  name  is  highly  improper,  though  ignorant 
usage  has  forced  its  acceptance  by  some  "  authori- 
ties." The  Republic  of  Santo  Domingo  has  an 
area  of  18,045  square  miles,  which  is  nearly  double 
that  of  Haiti,  while  its  population  numbers  only 
610,000,  or  about  one  half  that  of  the  negro  nation. 
There  is  also  a  wide  difference  in  the  character  of 
the  people  of  the  two  republics.  Those  of  Santo 
Domingo  are  to  a  considerable  degree  Spanish  in 
their  origin  and  traditions,  and  retain  the  Spanish 
language  without  much  degeneration.  The  Span- 
iards were  not  driven  out  when  the  bond  of  sover- 
eignty was  broken,  and  have  never  been  excluded. 
About  one  tenth  of  the  present  inhabitants  are  of 
pure  Castilian  blood,  and  the  rest  exhibit  every  de- 
gree of  mixture  of  white  and  "  coloured,"  with 
comparatively  little  of  the  unadulterated  negro. 
The    Spanish    slavery  system  was  not  so  harsh  as 

251 


252  THE   WEST  INDIES 

that  of  ihe  more  flourishing  French  colony,  where 
large  plantations  enriched  their  owners;  and  the 
Catholic  Church  did  more  to  soften  and  modify  the 
African  character  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  island. 
The  consequence  is  the  mixture  of  races  and  the 
more  tractable  character  of  the  people,  who  do  not 
cling  to  pagan  superstitions  and  practices  or  retain 
savage  qualities  to  the  same  extent  as  those  of 
Haiti. 

The  Dominican  Republic  is  now  divided  into  ten 
provinces  and  districts,  as  follows,  the  figures  in- 
dicating the  population  according  to  the  latest 
official  statements:  Beginning  at  the  western  limit 
on  the  south  coast,  Azua  de  Compostela,  50,000, 
Santo  Domingo,  134,000,  Santa  Cruz  del  Seybo, 
56,000;  in  the  interior,  Concepcion  de  la  Vega, 
132,000,  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros,  40,000,  Bara- 
hona,  20,000,  San  Pedro,  40,000;  in  the  north-east, 
Samana,  180,000;  and  on  the  north  coast,  Puerto 
Plata,  40,000,  and  Monte  Cristi,  40,000.  The  capi- 
tal town  in  each  province  and  district  has  the  same 
name  as  the  political  division  itself,  except  that  the 
port  of  Samana  is  sometimes  called  by  the  old  name 
of  Santa  Barbara,  but  the  capital  is  not  in  every  case 
the  largest  town. 

Of  the  five  provinces  into  which  the  republic  was 
originally  divided,  that  of  Azua  de  Compostela  in- 
cludes a  fine  grazing  region,  the  upper  valley  of  the 
Artibonite,  and  a  district  of  mineral  springs  near  the 
borders  of  Haiti.  At  San  Juan  de  Maguana  some 
curious  relics  of  the  aboriginal  cult  have  been  found, 
including  a  circle  of  stones  roughly  representing  the 


THE  DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC  253 

emblem  of  eternity,  in  the  form  of  a  serpent  with 
its  tail  in  its  mouth.  Azua  on  Ocoa  Bay  is  the  only 
important  port  on  the  southern  coast  west  of  Santo 
Domingo.  The  capital  city  itself  is  the  oldest  in 
the  western  world,  though  not  the  original  town  of 
Bartolome  Colon,  which  was  on  the  other  bank  of  the 
Ozama  River.  There  are  still  some  vestiges  of  ruins 
on  the  east  bank  which  recall  the  memory  of  Colum- 
bus, including  those  of  the  chapel  where  Bobadilla 
proclaimed  the  deposition  of  the  great  Admiral  and 
his  own  assumption  of  command ;  and  even  traces 
of  the  tower  by  the  river's  mouth  in  which  he  was 
imprisoned  before  being  sent  home  in  chains.  The 
first  settlement  Avas  destroyed  by  a  hurricane  in 
1502,  and  the  other  bank  of  the  river  was  chosen  as 
a  more  favourable  site.  The  great  tower  of  the 
Homenage,  built  in  1509,  still  frowns  dismally  at 
the  entrance  to  the  modern  city,  and  farther  up  are 
the  ruins  of  the  palace  built  by  Diego  Colon,  and 
known  yet  as  the  Casa  Colon. 

Santo  Domingo  is  a  strange  mixture  of  the  endur- 
ing relics  of  former  splendour  and  the  squalid  domi- 
ciles of  the  living  generation.  It  is  partly  inclosed 
in  the  old  Spanish  walls  over  which  appear  the  quaint 
domes  and  belfries  of  churches  and  convents  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  On  the  central  plaza  are  the 
government  buildings  and  a  cathedral  more  than 
three  hundred  and  fifty  years  old,  with  a  statue  of 
Columbus  in  front  of  it ;  but  crumbling  ruins  of 
still  earlier  structures  may  be  explored.  Remains 
of  the  convent  church  of  San  Nicolas,  built  in  1509, 
are  visible,  and  in  that  of  San  Francisco  the  dust  of 


254  ^^^   IVEST  INDIES 

Bartolom^  Colon  and  of  the  intrepid  soldier  Alonso 
de  Ojeda  are  said  to  repose.  To  the  convent  church 
of  Santo  Domingo  still  cling  fragments  of  the  walls 
of  the  first  university  founded  in  the  New  World, 
where  the  gentle  Las  Casas  began  his  ministrations 
before  going  to  Cuba. 

The  cathedral  was  many  years  in  building  and  was 
finally  completed  in  1540,  Already  the  remains  of 
Diego  Colon  had  been  placed  in  a  vault  beneath  one 
of  its  chapels,  and  on  petition  of  survivors  of  the 
family  those  of  the  discoverer  himself  were  brought 
thither  and  deposited  near  them.  Are  they  still 
there  ?  When  the  colony  was  ceded  to  France  in 
1795,  Spain  was  permitted  to  remove  these  precious 
relics  to  Havana,  which  she  was  supposed  to  have 
done  with  great  solemnity  and  much  ceremony;  but 
it  is  now  pretty  well  demonstrated  that  the  wrong 
casket  was  removed  and  that  the  bones  of  Christo- 
pher Columbus  still  repose  in  the  city  of  his  brother 
and  his  son,  which  succeeded  the  Navidad  and 
Isabella  of  his  own  founding. 

Extending  about  the  city  of  Santo  Domingo  is  a 
district  of  small  towns  and  plantations  connected  with 
it  in  recent  times  by  railroad.  The  Seybo  province 
to  the  east  is  mostly  a  region  of  forests  and  broad 
savannas.  The  eastern  slope  of  the  great  and  fertile 
plain  that  so  captivated  the  eye  of  Columbus  contains 
some  quietly  flourishing  towns  and  many  sugar  and 
coffee  plantations,  but  near  the  mouth  of  the  Yuna 
River  there  is  a  long  marsh  called  the  gran  estero. 
The  old  port  of  Las  Flechas  near  the  end  of  the  island 
has  been  abandoned  for  that  of  Samana,  within  the 


THE  DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC  255 

sheltered  bay,  which  is  connected  by  railroad  with 
La  Vega  and  Santiago.  It  is  intended  to  extend 
the  line  through  the  Yaqui  valley  to  Monte  Cristi. 
The  pearl  fisheries  on  the  south  side  of  Samana  Bay, 
near  San  Lorenzo,  where  there  are  some  fine  stalac- 
tite caves,  have  been  abandoned.  There  is  stock- 
raising  as  well  as  the  cultivation  of  sugar,  coffee, 
and  tobacco  in  the  long  stretches  of  the  Vega  Real, 
and  some  mining  still  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Monte  Cristi.  Puerto  Plata,  the  only  seaport  of 
consequence  on  the  north  coast,  took  the  place  of  the 
ill-fated  Isabella  of  Columbus.  Its  harbour  is  not 
deep  but  is  locally  serviceable,  and  there  has  been 
a  project  of  a  railroad  across  the  island  from  Santo 
Domingo  to  Puerto  Plata,  taking  in  Santiago  and 
intersecting  the  line  from  Samana. 

The  French  took  possession  of  the  old  Spanish 
colony  of  Espaflola  after  the  treaty  of  Basle  in  1795, 
and  maintained  a  garrison  there  through  the  troubles 
of  those  and  subsequent  times;  but  in  1809  it  was 
driven  out  by  the  English  who  restored  the  sover- 
eignty of  Spain.  This  continued  until  1821,  when 
Santo  Domingo  gained  her  independence  only  to  be 
coerced  by  General  Boyer  into  the  union  with  Haiti 
in  1822.  This  lasted  until  1844,  when  the  new  Do- 
minican Republic  was  established  under  a  separate 
constitution,  and  General  Pedro  Santana  was  chosen 
as  the  first  president  for  a  term  of  four  years.  His 
successor,  Jimenez,  conspired  with  Soulouque  to 
bring  back  the  old  state  of  things,  and  was  resisted 
and  defeated  by  Santana,  who  regained  power  as  a 
temporary  dictator,  though  Buenaventura  Baez  was 


256  THE   WEST  INDIES 

elected  president  in  1849.  ^^i  1853,  there  was  a  fierce 
contest  in  which  Santana  won  the  presidency  and 
Baez  was  banished,  but  in  1856  the  latter  was  recalled 
and  put  in  power,  to  give  way  to  Santana  again  in 
1858. 

Getting  discouraged  by  the  difficulty  of  main- 
taining a  stable  government,  the  president  allowed 
Spain  to  resume  control  in  1861.  But  this  only  made 
things  worse,  and  in  1865  the  Spanish  authorities 
were  expelled,  independence  was  again  declared,  the 
old  constitution  was  adopted  anew,  and  Baez  was 
once  more  made  the  chief  magistrate.  But  the  very 
next  year  he  was  expelled  and  a  triumvirate  was 
established,  to  be  succeeded  in  1868  by  Jose  Maria 
Cabral  as  president,  who  offered  to  lease  the  Bay  of 
Samana  to  the  United  States.  Cabral  was  speedily 
displaced  by  the  persistent  Baez,  and  a  commission 
was  sent  to  Washington  in  1871  to  promote  the 
annexation  of  Santo  Domingo  to  the  United  States. 
Its  mission  was  a  failure,  and  in  1873  Samana  was 
ceded  to  an  American  company  which  forfeited  its 
rights  by  failure  to  pay  the  stipulated  rental  the  first 
year.  In  1873,  Ignacio  Gonzales  became  president, 
and  there  was  a  period  of  comparative  quiet  but 
little  progress. 

After  a  renewal  of  disturbances  in  1886,  General 
Ulisses  Heureaux  was  elected  president,  and  was  re- 
elected for  three  successive  terms  of  four  years.  His 
administration  was  disturbed  by  insurrections  and 
revolutionary  movements,  which  became  serious  in 
1893  and  in  1896,  but  he  put  them  down  with  an 
energetic  hand  and  maintained  his  power. 


THE  DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC  257 

The  constitution,  which  was  adopted  in  1844  and 
reaffirmed  in  1865,  was  revised  in  1888,  and  again 
modified  in  1896.  The  legislative  body  is  a  single 
chamber  of  twenty-four  members,  two  representing 
each  province  and  district,  and  two  the  cities  of 
Santo  Domingo  and  Santiago.  They  are  elected 
by  popular  suffrage  for  a  term  of  four  years,  as  is 
the  president,  or  chief  executive.  The  judiciary  con- 
sists of  a  Supreme  Court  at  Santo  Domingo,  and 
lower  courts  in  the  districts,  while  every  town  and 
parish  has  its  alcalde,  or  local  magistrate.  There  are 
provincial  assemblies  with  limited  jurisdiction,  and 
town  councils,  or  ayuntamientos,  after  the  manner 
of  Spanish  municipal  administration. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  continued  dom- 
inant, and  the  archbishop  of  Santo  Domingo  still 
claims  the  old  title  of  "  Primate  of  the  Indies,"  but 
a  policy  of  toleration  has  been  pursued,  and  there 
are  many  Protestants  in  the  republic,  mainly  Metho- 
dists and  Baptists.  Though  there  is  a  university, 
two  colleges,  and  many  schools,  education  is  back- 
ward. 

While  Santo  Domingo  does  not  appear  to  prosper 
or  to  advance  very  perceptibly,  it  has  maintained  a 
steadily  progressive  policy  under  President  Heu- 
reaux.  There  has  been  no  such  jealousy  of  foreign 
influence  as  prevails  in  Haiti,  and  English  and 
American  capital  has  been  encouraged.  Railroads 
have  been  begun  and  are  to  be  extended,  and  most 
of  the  important  towns  are  connected  by  telegraph. 
In  1888,  Santo  Domingo,  Samana,  and  Puerto  Plata 
were  connected  with  the  submarine  cable  system  by 


258  THE   WEST  INDIES 

way  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  taking  in  Mole  St.  Nicho- 
las on  the  way.  Still  the  foreign  trade  has  amounted 
to  less  than  $4,000,000  a  year,  the  imports  being 
valued  at  about  $1,703,595,  and  the  exports  at  $2,- 
200,000.  The  latter  consist  chiefly  of  sugar,  coffee, 
cacao,  mahogany,  logwood,  hides,  goat-skins,  and 
honey,  and  the  former  of  cotton  fabrics,  hardware, 
earthenware,  and  breadstuffs.  About  half  this  trade 
is  with  the  United  States.  Since  1893,  the  "  San 
Domingo  Improvement  Company  "  of  New  York 
has  had  charge  of  the  collection  of  customs  and  the 
distribution  of  the  revenues  of  the  republic.  There 
are  no  national  taxes  except  the  customs  duties,  and 
these  increased  from  $652,000  in  1892  to  $1,601,000 
in  1897.  There  have  been  considerable  public  im- 
provements made  in  recent  years,  including  the 
building  of  docks,  warehouses,  and  lighthouses,  as 
well  as  railroads  and  telegraph  lines.  The  people 
of  Santo  Domingo  are  generally  peaceable  and  law- 
abiding,  and  are  especially  courteous  and  hospitable 
to  strangers,  but  there  is  a  lack  of  enterprise  and 
energy,  and  as  a  consequence  the  great  natural 
resources  of  the  country  have  been  little  developed. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS   OF   PUERTO    RICO 


THE  great  submarine  plateau  from  which  the 
Bahama  Islands  spring  and  the  vast  ocean 
ridges  to  the  south  of  it  converge  to  an  apex  some 
1500  miles  from  their  western  origin.  The  two 
ridges  which  run  through  Cuba  and  Jamaica,  one 
having  its  apparent  point  of  departure  at  Yucatan 
and  the  other  at  the  angle  of  Honduras,  coalesce  in 
the  island  of  Haiti,  and  sink  again  below  the  sea- 
level  in  a  single  ridge,  which  reappears  at  a  distance 
of  ninety  miles  in  the  island  of  Puerto  Rico.  This 
island  stands  like  a  huge  pillar,  with  deep  abysses 
on  either  side,  between  the  broad  and  varied  forma- 
tion which  constitutes  a  submerged  extension  of  the 
continent  and  the  long  chain  of  rocky  and  coralline 
isles  that  sweeps  in  a  vast  semicircle  to  the  coast  of 
South  America.  It  stands  guard  at  the  main  en- 
trance to  the  Caribbean  Sea  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  in  the  natural  pathway  from  the  east  to  the 
narrow  isthmus  which  divides  the  American  Medi- 
terranean from  the  Pacific.  The  channel  between 
Haiti  and  Puerto  Rico  is  called  the  Mona  Passage, 

259 


26o  THE   WEST  INDIES 

and  near  the  middle  of  it  rises  Mona  ("  Monkey  ") 
Island,  which    belongs  politically  to  Puerto  Rico. 

The  western  coast-line  of  the  large  island  runs 
irregularly  north  and  south  from  Punta  de  Pefia 
Ahujerada  to  Punta  de  Aguila,  with  the  Punta  del 
Juguro  marking  the  farthest  westward  projection, 
about  one  third  of  the  way  down  the  coast.  This 
western  boundary  is  a  little  over  forty  miles  long, 
and  the  island  extends  eastward  a  little  more  than 
one  hundred  miles  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram, 
with  its  north  and  south  sides  slightly  indented 
here  and  there  with  bays  and  inlets.  Toward  the 
eastern  end  it  diminishes  in  width,  and  its  outline 
becomes  more  broken,  while  the  eastern  coast-line 
is  quite  irregular  and  deflected  to  a  north-easterly 
and  south-westerly  direction,  with  two  small  islands 
and  a  number  of  islets  and  keys  lying  off  the  shore. 
At  the  north-east  angle  is  Cape  San  Juan,  and  the 
south-eastern  cape  is  Malapasqua. 

The  largest  of  the  outlying  islands  is  Vieques,  or 
"  Crab,"  which  is  about  seventeen  miles  long  by  five 
wide,  with  a  ridge  of  hills  running  through  its  length. 
North  of  its  eastern  end  is  La  Culebra  ("  The 
Snake"),  six  miles  by  three,  with  a  rugged  but 
wooded  surface.  Near  by  this  latter  is  Culebrita, 
or  Little  Snake,  and  North-east  and  Bird  Keys, 
which  are  rocky  but  wooded  cones  rising  out  of  the 
sea;  and  between  it  and  Cape  San  Juan  is  a  string 
of  reefs,  with  the  cluster  of  isles  named  Obispo, 
Zancudo,  and  Ramos  off  the  shore  opposite  Fajardo. 
Including  these  Islas  del  Pasaje,  or  Islands  of  the 
Passage,  and  Mona  Island  in  the  west,  the  area  of 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  PUERTO  RICO        26 1 

Puerto  Rico  is  set  down  as  3630  square  miles,  which 
puts  it  somewhat  below  Jamaica  in  size  and  makes 
it  about  one  fifth  as  large  as  Haiti  and  one  twelfth 
the  extent  of  Cuba. 

An  elevated  ridge  of  land  runs  through  the  island 
from  west  to  east  a  few  miles  from  the  southern 
coast,  throwing  off  spurs  here  and  there  irregularly 
in  a  northerly  direction ;  but  it  is  hardly  more  than 
a  range  of  wooded  hills  with  a  general  altitude  of 
less  than  1500  feet,  though  in  the  east  it  is  dignified 
by  the  name  of  the  Sierra  Cayey.  There  is  a  short 
range  more  worthy  of  the  name  of  mountains  in  the 
north-east,  sweeping  in  a  southerly  curve  from  near 
Cape  San  Juan  westward,  called  the  Sierra  de 
Luquillo,  which  culminates  in  El  Yunque,  "The 
Anvil, ' '  a  graceful  peak  over  3600  feet  high.  Except 
this  solitary  summit,  none  of  the  heights  break  into 
rocks  or  precipices,  and  nowhere  on  the  surface  are 
there  signs  of  volcanic  action.  The  whole  rocky 
skeleton  of  the  island  is  overlaid  with  soil,  mostly 
rich  in  quality,  and  the  many  hills  and  ridges  are 
covered  with  forests  and  dense  vegetation  to  the 
very  top.  The  outer  formation  of  rock  is  chiefly 
limestone,  and  in  some  of  the  lowlands  near  the 
coast  there  are  caves,  notably  in  the  vicinity  of 
Arecibo  on  the  northern  side;  and  there  are  coral- 
line structures  here  and  there,  though  no  such  islets 
and  reefs  as  profusely  stud  parts  of  the  shores  of 
Cuba  and  Haiti. 

There  are  hundreds  of  running  streams,  some  of 
them  rivers  of  considerable  size,  winding  through 
the   long   valleys.      Seventeen    are  enumerated   as 


262  THE   WEST  INDIES 

running  to  the  north  coast,  sixteen  to  the  south, 
nine  to  the  east,  and  only  two  to  the  west.  The 
longest  naturally  take  a  northerly  course,  and  the 
principal  ones  on  that  slope  are  the  Arecibo  in 
the  west  and  the  Cayagua  in  the  east.  On  the 
shorter  southern  slope  are  the  Coamo  and  the  Ja- 
caguas.  None  of  these  are  navigable  to  any  con- 
siderable distance,  and  they  are  not  often  broken 
by  picturesque  waterfalls;  but  they  lend  an  aspect 
of  rich  verdure  and  splendid  beauty  to  nearly  all  the 
land.  Exposed  directly  to  the  steady  draft  of  the 
north-east  trade-winds,  Puerto  Rico  has  a  heavier 
rainfall  on  the  northern  than  on  the  southern  slope, 
and  there  are  places  on  the  latter  where  irrigation  is 
needed  for  a  proper  distribution  of  the  water  supply 
throughout  the  seasons.  The  line  of  coast  is  de- 
pressed at  frequent  intervals  by  the  river  valleys, 
and  there  are  many  small  bays,  some  of  which  afford 
safe  harbours,  though  few  are  deep.  The  principal 
ports  on  the  northern  coast  are  Arecibo  and  San 
Juan  de  Puerto  Rico;  on  the  western  coast,  Agua- 
dilla  and  Mayaguez ;  on  the  south,  Guanica,  Guaya- 
nilla,  La  Playa,  "  the  Beach  "  (of  Ponce),  and  Arroyo ; 
and  on  the  east,  Humacao  and  Fajardo. 

Comparatively  little  has  been  ascertained  regard- 
ing the  mineral  resources  of  the  island,  but  gold, 
iron,  copper,  and  coal  are  known  to  exist  beneath 
the  verdant  surface.  Placer  mining  for  gold  has 
been  carried  on  to  a  small  extent  in  the  Luquillo 
and  Corozal  districts,  and  there  are  copper  mines  at 
Naguabo.  The  deposits  of  copper  sulphates  are 
quite  extensive  but  little  worked.     There  is  a  valu- 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  PUERTO  RICO         263 

able  magnetic  iron  ore,  and  small  foundries  have 
been  established  in  San  Juan,  Ponce,  and  Maya- 
guez.  The  coal  is  chiefly  a  variety  of  lignite  found 
in  the  west  near  Moca  and  Utuado.  There  is  a 
compact  limestone  which  makes  an  excellent  build- 
ing material,  and  several  varieties  of  marble  are 
easily  obtained. 

In  the  forests,  which  cover  all  the  higher  eleva- 
tions, there  are  many  species  of  trees  which  afford 
valuable  timber.  Among  these  are  mahogany, 
cedar,  ebony,  lignum  vitae,  and  a  tree  peculiar  to 
the  island  which  bears  a  profusion  of  odorous  white 
flowers  and  yields  a  timber  called  Sabino.  Log- 
wood, fustic,  and  other  dye  materials  are  also  abund- 
ant in  the  forests,  which  are  easily  accessible  except 
for  the  obstruction  of  rank  vegetation,  through 
which  no  roads  or  trails  have  been  broken.  The 
cocoanut  palm  is  common,  and  there  is  all  the 
variety  of  tropical  plants  and  fruits  found  upon  the 
large  islands  to  the  west,  growing  in  even  greater 
luxuriance  on  account  of  the  unbroken  richness  of 
the  soil  and  the  general  distribution  of  water  in  run- 
ning streams.  Shrubs  and  herbaceous  plants  with 
showy  flowers  are  not,  however,  characteristic  of 
the  landscape,  which  is  conspicuous  for  its  verdure 
rather  than  its  bloom.  This  verdure  includes  rank 
growths  of  ferns,  some  of  which  tower  into  spread- 
ing trees  with  graceful,  drooping  fronds. 

There  is,  comparatively  speaking,  a  lack  of  birds 
as  well  as  of  flowers.  Though  there  are  parrots, 
pigeons,  cuckoos,  and  humming-birds,  orioles,  war- 
blers, and  nightingales,  the  verdurous  landscape  is 


264  THE   WEST  INDIES 

not  much  lighted  by  brilliant  plumage  or  enlivened 
by  notes  of  song.  Wild  animals  are  few,  though 
the  agouti  and  the  armadillo  are  still  found;  rep- 
tiles are  not  specially  plentiful,  and  insects  are  less 
intrusive  than  in  most  tropical  climes.  There  are, 
however,  some  objectionable  specimens,  including 
a  chigoe  that  will  bore  through  the  sole  of  a  shoe 
and  attack  the  sole  of  the  foot. 

Puerto  Rico  is  a  land  of  rich  soil  and  luxuriant 
vegetation  rather  than  of  varied  animal  life,  and  it 
is  capable  of  cultivation  far  beyond  anything  to 
which  it  has  been  subjected.  Among  its  indigenous 
products  are  tobacco,  maize,  cotton,  cacao,  yams, 
plantains,  bananas,  oranges,  and  many  other  fruits, 
and  great  crops  of  these  can  be  easily  raised ;  but 
the  leading  "  staples  "  have  long  been  the  exotic 
coffee  and  sugar-cane,  on  account  of  the  profit  which 
they  yielded  in  former  days.  They  still  hold  the 
front  place  in  spite  of  negligent  cultivation,  de- 
pressed prices,  and  the  lack  of  proper  means  of 
transportation.  The  climate  of  the  island  does  not 
differ  materially  from  that  of  the  other  Antilles, 
except  that  it  has  less  of  the  variety  due  to  differ- 
ences of  altitude.  It  is  very  warm  and  very  wet  in 
the  summer  months,  and  on  the  northern  slope  the 
rainy  season  is  rather  prolonged.  The  heat  and 
humidity  in  August  and  September  are  oppressive 
and  enervating  in  the  low  lands  near  the  coast,  and 
malarial  fevers  are  common  in  the  absence  of  sani- 
tary and  hygienic  precautions.  Little  attention  has 
been  given  in  the  past  to  drainage  or  a  proper  dis- 
tribution of  the  abundant  water  supply,  and  where 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  PUERTO  RICO 


265 


there  is  a  dense  population  in  the  artificial  condi- 
tions of  towns  epidemics  sometimes  appear.  But 
on  the  whole  the  climate  is  remarkably  healthful, 
and  from  November  to  June  has  a  delightful  soft- 
ness and  splendour.  The  prevailing  winds  are 
easterly  and  north-easterly,  and  there  is  a  notable 
absence  of  the  land  breeze  which  is  characteristic  of 
the  islands  farther  west.  Sometimes  in  the  wet 
season  there  are  thunder-storms  of  terrific  violence, 
and  occasionally  the  hurricanes,  which  are  bred  be- 
low the  Caribbees,  sweep  with  all  their  fury  across 
this  narrow  barrier  to  the  open  ocean,  though  their 
customary  track  is  farther  west.  A  very  destructive 
one  visited  the  island  in  1825. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

PUERTO    RICO   IN   SPANISH    HANDS 

WHEN  Columbus  sailed  from  the  northern  side 
of  Hispaniola  for  Spain,  after  his  first  voy- 
age of  discovery,  he  probably  did  not  observe  the 
verdant  heights  of  the  beautiful  island  to  the  south, 
for  he  left  no  record  of  it;  but  on  his  return  in  No- 
vember, 1493,  he  came  up  from  the  Caribbees  past 
the  Virgins  and  skirted  along  its  southern  shore. 
As  he  went  up  its  western  coast  on  his  way  to  the 
forlorn  colony  which  he  had  left  at  La  Navidad, 
he  made  a  landing  in  a  broad  bay  where  he  found 
generous  springs  of  water  for  his  ships.  He  called 
the  place  Aguadilla,  admired  the  waving  palm-trees 
on  the  sandy  shore  and  the  green  background  of 
wooded  hills,  and  went  his  way.  The  natives  called 
their  land  Borinquen,  but  with  his  fondness  for 
labelling  his  discoveries  with  the  names  of  saints 
Columbus  called  it  San  Juan  Bautista,  or  St.  John 
the  Baptist. 

For  fifteen  years  the  island  was  left  undisturbed 
under  the  cacique  Agueynaba,  whose  people  were 
said  to  be  numerous,  and  were,  so  far  a«  we  know, 

266 


PUERTO   RICO  IN  SPANISH  HANDS  267 

happy  and  harmless.  Before  Diego  Colon  came 
from  Spain  to  exercise  his  inherited  prerogatives 
and  send  Esquivel  to  Jamaica  and  Velasquez  to 
Cuba,  a  Spanish  commander  in  the  east  of  Hispa- 
niola,  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon  by  name,  made  a  pro- 
specting trip  across  the  channel,  lured  by  reports  of 
great  wealth  in  the  unexplored  island  of  San  Juan 
Bautista.  He  was  received  with  imprudent  hospital- 
ity by  Agueynaba,  who  with  childish  delight  showed 
him  glittering  grains  of  gold  from  the  river  beds. 
Confirmed  in  his  anticipations  of  wealth,  Ponce  de 
Leon  returned  to  Santo  Domingo,  and  two  years 
later,  in  15 10,  went  with  an  armed  expedition  to 
take  possession  of  Agueynaba's  realm.  He  ex- 
plored the  northern  coast  until  he  came  to  a  deep 
inlet  opening  into  a  spacious  bay,  and  near  this  he 
founded  the  town  of  Caparra;  but  finding  that  he 
had  chosen  the  wrong  side  of  the  bay  for  defensive 
purposes,  he  started  again  a  year  later  on  the  island 
that  guarded  the  entrance  on  the  east,  and  built  a 
city  which  he  called  San  Juan  Bautista  de  Puerto 
Rico.  This  became  the  capital  of  the  new  colony, 
and  remained  so  while  Spain  held  her  sovereignty  in 
the  western  world.  Unwittingly  Ponce  de  Leon 
gave  a  new  name  to  the  whole  island,  for  though 
Puerto  Rico  meant  simply  a  "  splendid  port,"  it 
was  incongruously  applied  to  a  land  of  large  extent 
and  many  ports,  and  the  English,  with  their  pro- 
pensity for  assimilating  foreign  words  to  the  sound 
of  their  own  language,  came  to  call  it  Porto  Rico, 
as  if  it  were  Portuguese  instead  of  Spanish. 

Ponce  de  Leon  had  hardly  started  his  new  colony 


268  THE  WEST  INDIES 

when  he  was  carried  away  by  his  dream  of  the  fount- 
ain of  perpetual  youth,  and  went  wandering  up  the 
Bahamas;  but  he  returned,  and,  though  he  received 
the  imposing  title  of  Adelantado  of  Bemini  and 
Florida,  he  gave  his  attention  for  a  time  to  the 
gentle  process  of  exterminating  the  natives  of  Puerto 
Rico  with  firearms  and  bloodhounds,  and  to  med- 
dling with  the  Caribs  farther  south,  by  way  of  de- 
veloping the  resources  of  the  land.  He  had  adopted 
the  repartimiento  plan  of  dividing  up  the  territory 
and  its  inhabitants,  and  because  the  people  would 
not  work  as  slaves  they  had  to  die.  As  for  the 
Caribs,  they  were  no  doubt  obtrusive  and  trouble- 
some, but  Ponce  de  Leon's  expedition  down  the 
islands  for  their  punishment  was  a  disastrous  failure. 
Finally,  in  1521,  the  conquistador  went  to  take  pos- 
session of  his  realm  of  Florida;  but  its  native  deni- 
zens objected  vigorously  with  bows  and  arrows,  and 
instead  of  renewing  his  youth  or  prolonging  his  life, 
the  visionary  warrior  retired  to  Cuba  to  die  of 
wounds. 

For  a  long  while  after  that  little  is  known  of 
Puerto  Rico's  history.  In  fact  there  seems  to  have 
been  little  history  to  know.  The  colony  was  at- 
tacked by  Caribs  and  by  hurricanes  and  gave  up  the 
struggle  for  existence;  but  the  Spanish  held  posses- 
sion at  San  Juan  with  soldiers  and  guns  in  spite  of 
visits  from  English  and  Dutch  admirals,  French 
corsairs,  and  all  manner  of  smugglers  and  buc- 
caneers. Drake  in  1595,  finding  that  there  was  no 
ransom  to  be  extorted,  sacked  the  place  and  left  it, 
and  in  1598,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  repeated  the 


PUERTO  RICO  IN  SPANISH  HANDS  269 

process;  but  Baldwin  Heinrich,  the  Dutchman,  in 
161 5,  met  with  spirited  resistance  from  the  garrison 
and  lost  his  life. 

All  through  the  seventeenth  century  and  far  into 
the  eighteenth  the  beauty  and  riches  of  the  island 
were  left  to  flourish  in  lonely  desolation,  save  for 
a  few  places  feebly  held  by  soldiers  on  the  coast, 
and  here  and  there  a  languishing  settlement.  It 
is  recorded  that  in  1700  there  were  only  three 
villages  in  all  the  island,  and  in  1765  the  entire 
population  numbered  45,000,  It  seems  like  a 
strange  oversight  that  the  enemies  of  Spain  did 
not  seize  this  neglected  domain ;  but  though  they 
stopped  to  fire  guns  at  the  forts  of  San  Juan 
now  and  then,  they  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
attracted  by  a  land  where  there  was  nothing  to  steal 
and  one  had  to  work  in  order  to  get  wealth.  At  last 
Spain  began  to  wake  up  to  the  value  of  this  posses- 
sion, and  not  only  were  slaves  introduced  to  culti- 
vate plantations,  but  Andalusian  peasants  were  sent 
out  as  real  colonists.  In  1775  the  population  was 
79,000,  of  which  50,000  consisted  of  negro  slaves, 
and  when  Lord  Abercrombie  made  his  attack  on 
San  Juan  in  1797,  he  had  to  give  it  up  after  a  siege 
of  three  days. 

The  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  rich  returns  that 
came  from  raising  coffee  and  sugar  gave  a  strong 
impulse  to  immigration  from  Europe,  and  to  the 
increase  of  slaves,  and  the  population  grew,  the 
white  element  gaining  more  rapidly  than  the  black 
and  mixed  breeds.  At  the  time  of  the  revolutions 
in  South  America  and  in  Central  America  and  Mex- 


270  THE    WEST  INDIES 

ico,  many  lovers  of  peace  and  seekers  for  prosperity 
betook  themselves  to  this  tranquil  isle.  Thus  it 
came  about  that  after  a  century  or  two  of  neglect 
and  solitude,  it  was  one  of  the  most  populous  and 
thriving  of  the  Antilles.  Of  the  progress  of  popula- 
tion there  is  no  accurate  record,  but  the  last  Spanish 
census,  taken  in  1887,  made  it  799,000,  of  which 
475,000  was  white  and  324,000  black  and  "  col- 
oured," or  mixed.  It  was  estimated  in  1898  at 
over  900,000,  nearly  two  thirds  Spanish  and  Creoles 
of  European  descent,  while  the  mulattoes  outnum- 
bered the  negroes. 

Puerto  Rico  during  the  comparatively  short  his- 
tory of  its  development  was  rather  submissive  to 
Spanish  rule,  partly  because  that  rule  was  somewhat 
milder  than  in  Cuba  and  partly  because  resistance  was 
hopeless.  In  1820,  when  the  spirit  of  revolution  was 
rife  and  there  were  many  refugees  from  countries  in 
which  it  was  raging,  an  uprising  was  attempted  even 
here,  and  as  Spain  had  her  hands  full  at  the  time,  the 
insurrectionary  movement  was  kept  alive  until  1823, 
when  she  had  no  difficulty  in  reasserting  her  author- 
ity. An  attempt  at  revolt  was  made  in  1867,  when 
the  Cuban  plots  were  fermenting,  but  it  was  promptly 
suppressed,  with  the  help  of  an  alarming  earthquake. 
In  fact,  the  people  had  little  chance  to  arm  or  to 
organise ;  there  were  no  mountain  fastnesses  in  which 
to  take  refuge ;  and  it  required  but  few  Spanish 
soldiers  to  keep  them  in  subjection. 

In  1869,  the  Spanish  Cortes  decreed  a  constitu- 
tion to  Puerto  Rico,  which  made  it  in  form  a  pro- 
vince of  Spain,  instead  of  a  colonial  dependency.     It 


PUERTO  RICO  IN  SPANISH  HANDS  2/1 

was  to  be  represented  in  the  Cortes  by  regular 
provincial  deputies,  elected  upon  the  same  condi- 
tions of  suffrage  as  those  prevailing  in  Spain.  The 
governor-general  was  to  be  the  resident  representa- 
tive of  the  sovereign  power.  He  was  at  once  the 
captain-general  of  the  armed  forces  and  the  chief 
administrative  ofificer.  As  civil  governor  he  was 
president  of  the  supreme  tribunal  of  justice  and  the 
head  of  an  administrative  council  appointed  at 
Madrid,  having  supervision  of  civil,  military,  and 
ecclesiastical  affairs;  but  the  fiscal  interests  of  the 
government  were  in  charge  of  a  specially  appointed 
officer,  called  an  "  Intendant."  There  was  a  bishop, 
appointed  by  the  Crown,  with  the  approval  of  the 
Pope,  and  made  subordinate  to  the  archbishop  of 
Santiago  de  Cuba.  The  judicial  system  was  like 
that  of  Cuba,  with  an  Audiencia  Real,  district  courts, 
and  local  magistrates  called  alcaldes.  These  were 
all  appointed  by  the  central  government,  and  the 
provincial  autonomy  was  a  mere  matter  of  form. 
The  province  was  divided  into  seven  departments 
for  convenience  of  central  administration  and  with 
little  regard  for  actual  local  self-government.  The 
names  of  the  departments  and  their  chief  towns, 
with  the  population  of  each,  according  to  the 
last  Spanish  census,  is  here  given  in  a  compact 
table : 

DEPARTMENTS.  POP.  CHIEF  TOWNS.  POP. 

I  San  Juan 27,000 
Bayamon 15,000 
Rio  Piedras r  1,000 

A  „v  „    Q  ,  (  Arecibo 30,000 

A'^"^° »24,835Jut^,,do 31.000 


2/2  THE  WEST  INDIES 


DEPARTMENTS.  POP.  CHIEF  TOWNS.  POP. 

.        j.„  o£  i  Aguadilla 16,000 

Aguadula 86,551-^, 

^  '-'^     I  Lares 17,000 

>,  /•     o     i  Mavafjuez 28,000 

Mayaguez 1 16,082  •{  r-     ' V?  „ 

^   °  (  ^an  German 20,000 

iCabo  Rojo    17,000 

Ponce 43,000 

Yauco 25,000 

Juana  Diaz 2 1 ,000 

Adjuntas 16,000 

r-  o  Q^.  i  Guayama 14,000 

Guayama 98,814-^,^     ■'  Sl'^^ 

'  ^        ^  I  Laguas 15,000 

Humacao 88,270     Humacao 15,000 

806,708 

The  island  of  Vieques  was  a  sub-department  of 
Humacao,  and  used  chiefly  as  a  military  penal  sta- 
tion. The  discrepancy  between  the  aggregate  of 
the  table  and  the  total  population  previously  given 
belongs  to  the  official  statements. 


'^M^y'. 


'J 


^^^^^M 

^   /^^^^ 

"^m 

^^ 

1 

p 

i 

^^fess? 

CHAPTER  XXV 


PORTS   AND   TOWNS   OF   PUERTO   RICO 


THE  only  inlet  on  the  whole  coast  of  Puerto  Rico 
that  affords  a  landlocked  harbour  is  that  on 
which  Ponce  de  Leon  established  his  headquarters. 
It  has  a  narrow,  winding  channel,  but  the  basin  within 
is  deep  and  spacious.  Though  there  is  a  lofty  back- 
ground of  hills  at  a  distance,  and  El  Yunque,  the 
highest  summit  on  the  island,  is  visible,  the  land 
about  the  bay  is  low  and  swampy,  except  on  the 
west,  where  the  islands  of  Cabra  and  Cabrita  are 
made  virtually  part  of  the  mainland  by  connecting 
sand-banks.  The  harbour  is  inclosed  to  the  east- 
ward of  the  channel  by  a  coralline  island,  connected 
now  with  the  main  shore  by  a  causeway  and  the 
Bridge  of  San  Antonio.  It  was  on  the  western 
point  of  this  island,  by  the  harbour  entrance,  that 
San  Juan  Bautista  de  Puerto  Rico  was  first  founded, 
and  there  the  capital  city,  generally  called  simply 
San  Juan,  still  stands,  though  it  has  grown  beyond 
the  ancient  walls  which  constituted  part  of  the  forti- 
fications of  Santa  Catalina.  Morro  Castle  is  still 
close  to  the  city  inclosure,  as  are  all  the  defences  of 

273 


2/4  THE  WEST  INDIES 

the  port.  This  adds  to  the  picturesque  appearance 
of  the  place,  but  exposes  it  to  direct  attack  in  case 
of  hostile  operations. 

The  island  on  which  the  town  was  built  extends 
about  two  and  a  quarter  miles  along  the  channel  into 
the  bay,  but  is  only  from  a  quarter  to  half  a  mile  in 
width,  and  ends  in  a  bluff  about  a  hundred  feet  high. 
The  walls  and  battlements  are  mediaeval  in  aspect, 
and  the  inclosure  is  crowded  with  the  habitations  of 
some  20,ocx)  people.  Six  parallel  streets  run  length- 
wise of  the  narrow  space  and  are  crossed  by  seven 
others.  The  houses  are  of  gray  stone,  or  of  brick 
stuccoed  over  and  tinted  drab,  yellow,  pink,  or  blue, 
making  a  variegated  and  attractive  picture  as  seen 
from  the  sea.  The  houses  are  mostly  of  two  stories, 
but  the  lower  is  a  kind  of  high  basement  crowded 
with  negroes  and  people  of  the  poorer  sort,  while  the 
upper  floors  are  occupied  by  respectable  and  well-to- 
do  families.  There  are  iron  balconies  to  the  main 
or  upper  story,  but  the  windows  which  open  upon 
these  have  no  glass  behind  the  shutters,  or  jalousies, 
and  the  houses  have  no  visible  chimneys.  They  are 
entered  through  interior  patios,  and  some  have  roof 
gardens,  but  there  are  no  open  spaces  about  them. 
The  people  are  dependent  upon  rain  for  their  water 
supply,  and  there  is  no  drainage  except  from  the 
surface.  It  is  not  strange  if  the  narrow  and  crowded 
streets  become  unwholesome  in  a  moist,  hot  atmos- 
phere, and  are  haunted  by  vermin  and  the  germs  of 
fever. 

Besides  the  forts  and  barracks  there  are  a  "  gov- 
ernor's  palace,"    a    city    hall,    theatre,    cathedral, 


PORTS  AND    TOWNS  OF  PUERTO  RICO      275 

and  a  number  of  churches.  The  Casa  Blanca,  or 
"  White  House,"  of  Ponce  de  Leon  is  still  standing 
where  it  looked  northward  over  the  sea  so  long  ago, 
and  the  dust  of  the  visionary  conquistador  is  cher- 
ished in  a  leaden  casket  in  the  old  Dominican  church. 
It  was  taken  from  the  vault  under  the  altar  in  1863, 
for  the  purpose  of  being  placed  beneath  a  monument 
which  was  to  be  raised  to  the  memory  of  the  founder 
of  San  Juan,  but  the  monument  has  not  been  built, 
and  the  casket  waits  the  never-coming  ' '  maflana* '  for 
its  final  repose.  On  the  bay  side  below  the  old 
walled  town  is  the  Marina,  with  wharves  and  wooden 
buildings  and  some  humble  dwellings,  and  in  the 
outskirts  on  the  one  roadway  to  the  mainland  is 
Puerta  de  Tierra,  with  some  2000  inhabitants.  At 
San  Turce,  out  on  the  road  beyond,  are  suburban 
residences,  and  also  at  Rio  Piedras  and  Cataflo 
across  the  bay.  The  near-by  rural  retreats  are 
mostly  on  sand  spits  surrounded  by  mangrove 
swamps.  A  few  miles  inland  to  the  west  of  the 
capital  is  Bayamon  on  a  river  of  the  same  name.  It 
is  the  centre  and  market-place  of  a  rich  agricultural 
region. 

Arecibo,  farther  west  on  the  north  coast,  is  called 
a  seaport,  but  it  is  some  distance  from  the  shore, 
and  the  Rio  Grande  de  Arecibo  is  a  shallow  stream, 
navigated  only  by  fiat-bottomed  boats.  The  town, 
nevertheless,  affords  the  outlet  to  the  sea  of  a  fertile 
district  which  contains  the  populous  towns  of  Ad- 
juntas  and  Utuado.  It  is  built  about  a  central  plaza 
upon  which  the  principal  public  buildings  face. 
Just  around  the  north-west  angle  of  the  island  on 


276  THE   WEST  INDIES 

the  west  coast  is  Aguadilla,  whose  harbour  is  shel- 
tered from  the  trade-winds,  and  which  has  a  thriving 
trade.  From  it  are  shipped  the  sugar  and  coffee 
of  the  plantations  of  Moca,  El  Pepino,  and  Lares 
in  the  rich  Colubrinas  valley.  Mayaguez,  farther 
to  the  south,  is  the  most  important  shipping  point  on 
the  west  coast,  and  yet  it  stands  some  distance  back 
and  a  considerable  stream  crossed  by  an  iron  bridge 
intervenes  between  the  town  and  the  roadstead  for 
vessels.  Transportation  to  and  fro  is  conducted  in 
a  primitive  fashion,  and  yet  from  Mayaguez  is  shipped 
a  large  share  of  the  products  of  Afiaso,  Cabo  Rojo, 
San  German,  and  the  adjacent  region.  Oranges, 
bananas,  and  other  fruits  figure  conspicuously  in  the 
exports  from  this  point. 

Guanica  on  the  southern  coast  has  one  of  the  best 
natural  harbours  on  the  whole  island,  but  the  adja- 
cent country  is  marshy.  Here,  nevertheless,  is  the 
outlet  of  a  productive  district  farther  inland,  which 
includes,  besides  the  southern  precincts  of  San  Ger- 
man, Sabana  Grande  and  Yauco.  Ponce,  the  largest 
and  commercially  the  most  important  city  on  the 
island,  is  three  miles  inland  from  the  wharves  and 
warehouses  of  La  Playa.  Its  public  buildings  are  of 
stone  and  brick,  and  the  most  important  of  them 
front  on  a  large  public  square.  There  are  fine  gar- 
dens and  plantations  in  the  neighbouring  country, 
and  the  considerable  towns  of  Juana  Diaz  and  Coamo 
are  near  by.  Mineral  and  thermal  springs  add  their 
attractions  to  this  part  of  the  island,  and  there  are 
some  famous  baths  at  Coamo.  The  place  of  most 
consequence  east  of  Ponce  is  Guayama,  near  the  port 


PORTS  AND    TOWNS  OF  PUERTO  RICO       2// 

of  Arroyo.  The  eastern  end  of  the  island  is  the  least 
populous  part,  and,  being  exposed  to  the  trade- 
winds,  there  are  no  sheltered  harbours,  and  the 
towns  are  built  back  from  the  coast.  The  most 
important  are  Cayey,  Naguabo,  San  Lorenzo,  and 
Humacao.  This  is  a  hilly  region  with  coffee  planta- 
tions interspersed  with  stretches  of  grazing  land. 
Near  San  Lorenzo  are  some  hot  springs. 

Fajardo  is  little  more  than  an  open  roadstead  on 
a  channel  sheltered  by  the  group  of  small  islands 
heretofore  mentioned,  but  on  the  south  side  of  the 
island  of  Culebra  is  a  safe  port  frequented  by  fisher- 
men and  wood-cutters,  though  the  island  itself  has  no 
permanent  residents.  On  the  north  side  of  Vieques 
is  Port  Mula  at  the  mouth  of  a  little  stream.  It  con- 
tains the  residence  of  the  local  governor,  and  has 
about  looo  inhabitants.  On  a  projecting  point  is  a 
lighthouse  with  a  fixed  red  light.  On  the  south  side 
of  this  island  is  the  little  village  of  Isabela  Segunda. 
The  group  of  islands  which  extends  into  the  Virgin 
Passage  are  picturesque  to  look  upon,  but  there  is 
little  industrial  life  among  them. 

Among  the  features  of  the  country  along  the  south 
coast  of  Puerto  Rico  are  occasional  marshes,  where 
salt  is  prepared  for  the  market.  These  are  found 
near  Cape  Rojo  and  Guanica  and  at  Salinas.  The 
interior  towns  are  mostly  points  for  the  collection 
of  agricultural  produce  to  be  sent  to  the  coast,  and 
they  are  located  altogether  in  the  valleys. 


CHAPTER    XXVI 


GENERAL  CONDITIONS   IN   PUERTO   RICO 


THE  development  of  Puerto  Rico  came  after  the 
era  for  creating  great  West  Indian  plantations, 
and  the  increase  of  population,  when  it  began,  was 
so  rapid  as  to  prevent  the  concentration  of  land  in 
few  hands.  Moreover,  this  increase  was  caused 
largely  by  immigration  of  white  settlers  from  Euro- 
pean and  Spanish-American  countries,  and  produced 
a  genuine  peasantry  attached  to  the  soil.  The 
negroes,  not  having  been  the  property  of  great 
planters  under  slave-driving  overseers,  were  better 
treated  than  those  in  most  of  the  other  islands,  and 
when  they  were  all  freed  in  1873,  they  found  them- 
selves more  nearly  on  a  footing  of  equality  with  the 
rest  of  the  people.  They  were  also  in  a  minority 
and  not  an  object  of  dread ;  and  of  the  900,000  and 
more  inhabitants  now  in  the  island  scarcely  more 
than  one  third  are  black  or  "  coloured."  This  dis- 
tinction between  negroes  and  those  of  mixed  blood 
as  "  black  "  and  "  coloured  "  is  generally  made 
throughout  the  West  Indies. 

In  the  middle  of  the  last  century  there  were  almost 
278 


GENERAL    CONDITIONS  IN  PUERTO  RICO    2/9 

no  towns,  and  the  few  inhabitants  were  so  dispersed 
over  the  country  that  they  seldom  came  together 
except  for  some  religious  or  festal  celebration,  when 
they  met  at  an  appointed  place  in  the  middle  of  a 
parish.  During  the  rapid  growth  of  population 
in  the  present  century  a  considerable  number  of 
towns  and  cities  have  been  built  up,  but  none  of 
them  are  large,  and  nearly  five  sixths  of  the  people 
are  still  rural  in  their  way  of  living.  Their  dwellings 
are  mostly  scattered  along  the  valleys,  where  alone 
there  are  practicable  roads.  There  are  very  few  on 
the  tops  or  slopes  of  the  hills.  Nearly  all  the 
natives,  of  whatever  complexion,  are  engaged  in 
agriculture  in  some  form.  The  soil  of  the  high- 
lands is  a  rich  red  loam,  and  that  of  the  valleys  a 
black  mould,  while  near  the  coast  it  becomes  more 
or  less  sandy.  It  is  nearly  everywhere  extremely 
fertile,  but  methods  of  cultivation  are  still  very 
primitive.  Oxen  are  harnessed  to  rude  implements 
by  the  horns  and  prodded  with  cruel  goads.  No 
crops  are  raised  on  a  large  scale,  and  hardly  any 
modern  appliances  or  processes  are  used.  The  land 
is  capable  of  producing  more  sugar  to  the  acre  than 
any  other  in  the  whole  archipelago,  and  the  finest 
of  cotton  and  tobacco  can  be  raised,  but  even  rural 
industry  is  backward. 

In  general  the  low  lands  near  the  coast  are  oc- 
cupied by  sugar  plantations,  interspersed  with  fruit 
groves  and  orchards.  The  tobacco  fields  are  on 
higher  ground  back  of  this  belt,  while  the  slopes  of 
the  hills  are  covered  with  coffee  gardens.  The 
means  of  internal  communication  are  poor,  and  the 


280  THE   WEST  INDIES 

transportation  of  produce  to  the  towns  is  clumsy  to 
a  degree.  Often  it  is  carried  long  distances  on  the 
heads  of  men  and  women  and  the  backs  of  beasts. 
Frequently  there  is  only  a  trail  or  bridle-path  grown 
up  with  tangled  vegetation  and  crossed  by  bridgeless 
streams.  A  system  of  roads  has  been  planned  but 
only  partly  executed.  There  is  a  fine  military  road 
which  winds  across  the  island  from  Ponce  to  San 
Juan,  making  a  distance  of  more  than  eighty  miles, 
with  stations  under  military  guard  at  frequent  inter- 
vals; but  this  was  constructed  and  maintained  by 
the  government  for  strategic  purposes.  The  princi- 
pal towns  are  connected  by  roads,  some  of  which 
have  been  kept  in  fair  condition ;  but  those  which 
have  not  been  solidly  built  for  military  use  are  apt 
to  be  washed  out  by  heavy  rains  and  grown  over  by 
rank  vegetation. 

A  railroad  system  has  been  projected  to  connect 
the  towns  near  the  coast  all  around  the  island,  with 
inland  spurs  at  all  important  points.  The  plan  is 
quite  feasible.  Roads  have  already  been  built  from 
Mayaguez  to  San  German  in  the  west  and  from 
Ponce  to  Coamo  in  the  south,  and  there  is  a  line 
across  the  island  from  Guayama  to  San  Juan.  As 
hardly  any  point  is  more  than  twenty  miles  from 
a  coast  town,  the  development  of  means  of  commu- 
nication will  be  an  easy  matter.  Most  of  the  towns 
are  already  connected  by  telegraph,  and  the  tele- 
phone has  come  into  use  in  the  principal  cities. 
Telegraphic  communication  has  been  established  by 
submarine  cable  from  San  Juan  to  St.  Thomas  and 
thence  down  the  Lesser  Antilles  to  South  America, 


GENERAL    CONDITIONS  IN  PUERTO  RICO    28 1 

and  also  from  the  capital  to  Jamaica,  Cuba,  and  the 
United  States  in  the  other  direction. 

Notwithstanding  the  backwardness  of  industrial 
methods  and  a  general  lack  of  capital  and  enterprise 
in  the  island,  and  in  spite  of  the  exacting  and  oppres- 
sive rule  of  Spain,  the  numerous  population  has  been 
fairly  prosperous,  and  a  considerable  trade  has  been 
built  up,  which  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  Spaniards 
or  other  foreigners.  The  collecting  and  distributing 
of  commodities  have  been  effected  by  an  active 
coasting  trade,  but  the  foreign  commerce  has  been 
carried  on  chiefly  through  the  Danish  island  of  St. 
Thomas,  which  was  long  the  principal  entrepot  of 
trade  in  this  part  of  the  West  Indies.  The  latest 
statistics  of  foreign  trade  give  the  imports  as  about 
$17,000,000  in  annual  value,  and  the  exports  $16,- 
500,000.  Over  one  half  the  exports  consists  of  coffee 
and  a  little  less  than  one  fourth  of  sugar,  the  next 
largest  item  being  tobacco.  Cacao  and  fruits  make 
up  a  large  part  of  the  remainder,  though  some  tim- 
ber, hides,  and  rum  are  sent  abroad.  The  exports 
to  Spain,  under  her  system  of  trade  restriction, 
amounted  to  28,750,000  pesetas  annually,  and  the 
imports  from  Spain  to  21,500,000  pesetas,  the  peseta 
being  about  equivalent  to  a  French  franc,  or  one  fifth 
of  a  dollar.  The  annual  revenue  of  the  government 
under  Spain  was  about  $4,000,000,  and  the  expend- 
itures a  little  less,  more  than  one  fourth  of  the 
latter  being  for  the  support  of  the  Spanish  military 
force  in  the  island. 

Of  the  social  condition  of  the  people  of  Puerto 
Rico  there  is  not  much  to  be  said.     As  in  Cuba,  the 


282  THE  WEST  INDIES 

Spaniards  have  been  wont  to  dominate  society  in 
the  chief  cities,  with  the  same  claims  of  superiority, 
but  with  something  less  of  aristocratic  pretension. 
Many  of  the  Creoles,  or  descendants  of  the  earlier 
Spanish  and  other  European  settlers,  are  people  of 
property  and  education.  The  mass  of  the  whites  are 
peaceable,  tractable,  and  fairly  intelligent,  but  there 
has  been  no  general  system  of  public  instruction, 
and  the  ratio  of  illiteracy  is  large.  The  mass  of  the 
rural  inhabitants  are  simple  in  their  habits  and  buy 
little  in  the  markets.  They  subsist  largely  upon 
the  fruit  and  vegetables  which  grow  so  abundantly 
about  them  with  little  attention  to  cultivation,  need 
little  clothing,  and  are  content  with  very  primitive 
shelter.  The  Catholic  religion  is  the  prevailing  one, 
as  in  all  Spanish  lands;  but  in  consequence,  perhaps, 
of  the  rapid  growth  and  the  mixed  origin  of  the 
population,  there  has  been  a  wide  toleration,  and 
the  Protestant  sects  have  a  foothold  in  some  of  the 
towns.  One  of  the  important  buildings  in  Ponce  is 
an  English  Episcopal  church. 

There  is  a  class  of  small  landowners  and  rural 
labourers  called  Gibaros,  who  are  said  to  be  of  old 
Spanish  stock  with  some  mixture  of  the  aboriginal 
Indian.  There  may  be  a  fruitful  field  of  archaeologi- 
cal or  ethnological  study  in  this  island,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  original  races  of  the  Antilles  and  the 
adjacent  continents.  It  is  here  that  the  Arawaks 
seem  to  have  made  their  last  stand  before  the  pur- 
suing Caribs,  in  the  migration  from  the  south ;  but 
of  what  preceded  these  migrating  people  little  trace 
has   heretofore    been  found.      Some  of   the  stone 


GENERAL    CONDITIONS  IN  PUERTO  RICO    283 

relics,  first  discovered  in  quite  recent  times,  are  sim- 
ilar to  some  that  have  been  dug  up  in  Mexico. 
Near  the  Rio  Grande  de  Loiza  in  the  north-east 
there  is  a  rude  monument  of  stone  with  curious  de- 
signs roughly  wrought  upon  it.  Fragments  of  pot- 
tery, regarded  as  ancient,  have  been  unearthed,  and 
there  may  be  a  sufificient  crop  of  such  things  if  prop- 
erly cultivated  to  teach  something  new  in  Amer- 
ican archaeology. 


g 

^^ 

CHAPTER  XXVII 

PUERTO    RICO   IN   AMERICAN   HANDS 

SHORTLY  after  the  surrender  of  Santiago  de 
Cuba  to  the  mihtary  forces  of  the  United 
States  in  July,  1898,  Major-General  Nelson  A.  Miles, 
commanding  general  of  the  American  army,  with 
about  3500  men,  who  had  been  brought  to  Cuba  as 
reinforcements  but  were  no  longer  needed  there, 
proceeded  to  the  capture  of  Puerto  Rico.  He  sailed 
from  Guantanamo  Bay,  July  21st,  with  the  cruiser 
Columbia,  the  auxiliary  cruiser  Yale,  and  the  gun- 
boat Gloucester,  and  made  a  landing  at  Guanica  on 
the  south  coast,  on  the  25th,  without  resistance. 
As  he  proceeded  toward  Ponce,  the  town  of  Yauco 
surrendered  with  enthusiasm,  and  he  was  welcomed 
at  the  chief  city  of  the  island  on  the  28th  with  ac- 
clamation as  a  liberator. 

Meantime  other  forces  had  been  dispatched,  under 
General  Schwan,  from  Tampa,  Fla.,  General  Wilson, 
from  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  General  Brooke,  from 
Newport  News,  Va.  The  last  named  landed  at 
Arroyo  to  the  east  of  Ponce  and  took  possession  of 
Guayama.     The  entire  force  in  the  island  was  then 

284 


PUERTO  RICO  IN  AMERICAN  HANDS        285 

about  17,000  men,  and  General  Miles  promptly- 
adopted  a  plan  of  concentrating  it  upon  San  Juan 
over  lines  that  passed  through  the  principal  towns. 
He  set  out  upon  the  military  road  and  passed  Coamo 
to  Aibonito,  while  General  Brooke  advanced  toward 
Cayey,  intending  to  join  forces  with  him.  General 
Wilson  was  proceeding  northward  with  Arecibo  as 
his  objective  point,  and  General  Schwan  had  passed 
San  German  and  reached  Mayaguez  on  his  way  to 
the  same  point  through  the  coast  towns.  In  this 
situation  the  order  came  on  the  13th  of  August  to 
suspend  hostilities  on  account  of  the  signing  of  a  pro- 
tocol embodying  terms  of  peace  with  Spain  on  the 
preceding  day. 

By  those  terms  Spain  agreed  to  "  cede  to  the 
United  States  the  island  of  Puerto  Rico  and  the 
other  islands  which  are  at  present  under  the  sover- 
eignty of  Spain  in  the  Antilles,"  and  immediately 
to  "  evacuate  "  those  islands.  Three  commissioners 
were  appointed  on  each  side  "  to  agree  upon  the 
details  of  the  evacuation  of  Puerto  Rico  and  other 
islands  now  under  Spanish  sovereignty  in  the  An- 
tilles." Those  acting  for  the  United  States  were 
Rear-Admiral  W.  S.  Schley,  Major-General  John 
R.  Brooke,  and  Brigadier-General  W.  W.  Gordon. 
They  met  at  San  Juan  on  September  6th,  General 
Brooke  crossing  the  island  under  escort  furnished  by 
Governor-General  Macias  from  Ponce,  where  his 
headquarters  had  been  established,  and  Admiral 
Schley  and  General  Gordon  arriving  from  the  United 
States  on  the  transport  Seneca.  They  met  with 
cordial  co-operation  from  the  Spanish  commissioners 


286  THE   WEST  INDIES  * 

and  other  authorities,  and  the  evacuation  of  the 
island  was  effected  so  that  the  United  States  flag 
was  hoisted  over  the  government  buildings  at  San 
Juan  on  the  i8th  of  October  as  a  symbol  of  the  new 
sovereignty  under  which  the  island  of  Puerto  Rico 
then  passed. 

A  part  of  the  army  of  occupation,  including 
those  who  had  been  wounded  in  the  slight  engage- 
ments that  had  occurred  with  Spanish  detachments 
on  the  first  advances  upon  the  southern  towns,  and 
those  debilitated  with  malarial  fever,  were  sent 
north,  but  about  8,cxx)  troops  remained  under  the 
command  of  General  Brooke,  who  was  acting  as 
military  governor.  Local  administration  was  main- 
tained on  the  old  system  and  the  supreme  authority 
was  continued  in  the  military  commander,  pending 
the  action  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  with 
reference  to  the  future  government  of  the  new  acqui- 
sition. Late  in  the  year  1898  General  Brooke  left 
the  island  for  another  command,  and  General  Guy 
V.  Henry  was  made  the  military  governor.  An 
Assembly  was  held,  which  consisted  of  delegates 
from  the  cities  and  towns  to  the  number  of  seventy, 
to  formulate  the  wishes  of  the  people  with  reference 
to  their  future  government. 


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CHAPTER  XXVIII 

LESSER  ANTILLES,    CARIBBEES,    WINDWARD, 
LEEWARD 

THE  designations  "  Lesser  Antilles  "  and  "  Car- 
ibbees  "  are  both  loosely  applied  to  all  the 
small  islands  of  the  West  Indies  to  the  east  and 
south  of  the  four  large  islands  known  as  the  Greater 
Antilles;  but  those  which  are  not  colonial  depend- 
encies of  some  European  power,  having  passed  from 
Spain  to  Venezuela  with  the  independence  of  that 
republic,  are  not  rated  politically  even  as  West 
Indies.  Geographically,  these  islands  appertain  to 
at  least  three  different  systems,  and  should  be  in 
some  way  distinguished  accordingly  ;  but  names  are 
a  matter  of  history  rather  than  of  science  or  logic. 
The  group  to  the  east  of  Puerto  Rico,  called  "  The 
Virgins,"  rises  from  an  extension  of  the  submarine 
formation  which  runs  through  the  Greater  Antilles. 
The  separating  channel,  known  as  the  Virgin  Pass- 
age, is  relatively  narrow  and  shallow,  while  this 
group  is  separated  from  the  true  Caribbean  chain  by 
a  chasm  6000  feet  deep  and  two  hundred  and  fifty 
miles   across.     This   chain  consisting,   as  we  have 

287 


288  THE    WEST  INDIES 

noted  in  the  early  part  of  this  volume,  of  a  main 
volcanic  strand  that  begins  with  Saba,  and  an  outer 
coralline  string  that  starts  with  Anguilla  and  the 
Sombrero  rocks,  terminates  with  Grenada,  five  hun- 
dred miles  or  more  to  the  south,  while  Barbados 
stands  off  a  hundred  miles  eastward  in  an  isolated 
position,  and  Trinidad  and  the  other  islands  off  the 
Venezuela  coast  belong  distinctly  to  the  continental 
system  of  South  America.  The  deep-water  separa- 
tion between  Grenada  and  the  nearest  of  the  latter 
is  about  as  great  as  that  between  Barbados  and  St. 
Vincent. 

The  old  Spanish  navigators  appropriately  desig- 
nated the  islands  which  constitute  the  eastern  barrier 
of  the  Caribbean  Sea  as  Barlovento,  or  "  Wind- 
ward," and  those  along  the  South  American  coast 
as  Sotavento,  or  "  Leeward,"  with  reference  to  the 
regular  trade-winds,  which  blow  steadily  from  the 
north-east  the  greater  part  of  the  year;  but  these 
terms  have  become  perverted  and  misapplied  by 
English  authority.  The  term  "  Windward  "  came 
to  be  applied  to  only  the  lower  section  of  the  Carib- 
bees,  from  the  fifteenth  parallel  southward,  and  was 
then  used  as  the  designation  for  a  colony  composed 
of  the  British  islands  in  that  section,  which  were 
associated  together  under  one  government.  At 
first  this  included  Barbados,  but  latterly  the  Wind- 
ward Islands  colony  has  consisted  of  St.  Lucia,  St. 
Vincent,  Grenada  and  the  Grenadines,  and  Tobago, 
though  this  last  is  more  properly  appurtenant  to 
Trinidad,  which,  like  Barbados,  now  constitutes  a 
colony  by  itself. 


WINDWARD  ISLANDS  289 

The  colony  of  the  Windward  Islands  has  a  gov- 
ernor and  executive  council  appointed  by  the  Crown, 
but  it  is  divided  into  four  administrative  depart- 
ments, each  of  which  has  an  executive  and  a  separate 
legislative  council  of  its  own.  These  departments  are 
St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent  with  a  part  of  the  Grenadines, 
Grenada  with  the  rest  of  the  Grenadines,  and  To- 
bago; but  there  is  no  real  autonomy  or  self-rule  in 
these  so-called  legislative  councils.  The  governor 
and  his  executive  councillors,  representing  the 
Crown,  are  all-powerful.  The  administrator  and 
colonial  secretary  who  presides  over  the  local  council 
is  an  appointee  of  the  governor,  and  so  are  virtually 
the  members  of  that  body.  The  legislative  council 
of  Grenada,  where  the  governor  himself  presides, 
consists  of  thirteen  members,  of  whom  six  are  ap- 
pointed officials  and  the  other  seven,  though  unoffi- 
cial, are  named  by  the  governor.  Of  course  he 
controls  a  body  so  constituted  in  the  exercise  of  its 
limited  functions.  The  legislative  council  of  St. 
Lucia  consists  of  five  official  and  five  unofficial  mem- 
bers, but  the  latter  are  appointed  by  the  governor  of 
the  colony,  as  is  the  official  administrator  who  pre- 
sides. The  same  system  exists  in  St.  Vincent  and 
Tobago,  except  that  in  the  former  there  are  four  offi- 
cial and  four  unofficial  members  of  the  council,  and 
in  the  latter  three  of  each  class;  but  they  all  repre- 
sent the  appointing  power  and  consequently  the 
imperial  government,  and  in  no  sense  or  degree 
the  people  of  the  colony. 

By  way  of  distinction  from  this  southern  group  of 
islands,  those  north  of  15°  north  latitude,  to  and 


290  THE    WEST  INDIES 

including  The  Virgins,  have  been  called"  Leeward  " 
very  inappropriately,  for  they  are  the  farthest  from 
the  leeward  position  with  reference  to  the  Caribbean 
Sea;  and  in  1871  the  British  possessions  in  this 
section  were  organised  into  the  "  Leeward  Islands 
Colony."  This  was  in  form  a  confederacy  with 
some  semblance  of  representative  government  and 
local  autonomy,  but  none  of  the  substance.  The 
confederacy  consisted  of  five  members:  Antigua 
with  Barbuda  attached,  St.  Christopher  and  Nevis 
with  Anguilla,  Montserrat,  the  Virgin  Islands,  and 
Dominica.  Each  of  these  was  formerly  a  colony, 
and  each  surrendered  its  separate  existence,  in  which 
there  was  a  trace  of  political  independence,  for  the 
advantages  of  a  confederation  which  is  really  gov- 
erned by  a  consolidated  bureaucracy.  The  system 
is  complex,  with  a  certain  appearance  of  representa- 
tive character. 

The  governor  and  executive  council  of  the  colony 
and  all  the  administrative  officials  are  appointed  by 
the  Crown.  The  colony  as  a  whole  and  each  of  its 
constituent  members  has  both  an  executive  council 
and  a  legislative  council — sometimes  called  house 
of  assembly, — the  former  being  appointive.  The 
legislative  council  of  Antigua  consists  of  twenty- 
four  members,  six  official,  six  non-official  appointed 
by  the  governor,  and  twelve  elected, — two  from  the 
city  of  St.  John  and  one  each  from  the  ten  other  elec- 
toral divisions.  The  suffrage  is  so  restricted  by  prop- 
erty qualification  that  only  three  hundred  or  four 
hundred  votes  are  cast  as  a  rule,  and  councillors 
have  sometimes  been  elected  by  three  or  four  votes. 


LEEWARD    ISLANDS  29 1 

There  is  a  higher  property  quahfication  for  mem- 
bership in  the  council,  and  only  a  small  number  of 
citizens  are  eligible.  The  governor,  whose  official 
residence  is  in  Antigua,  appoints  the  president  and 
vice-president  of  this  local  council,  and  practically 
controls  its  action. 

The  St.  Christopher-Nevis  council  has  no  elective 
members,  but  consists  of  ten  ofificial  and  ten  unof^- 
cial  members,  the  latter,  with  the  president,  who 
has  a  vote,  being  appointed  by  the  governor, — 
seven  from  St.  Christopher  and  three  from  Nevis. 
In  Dominica  there  is  a  president  and  executive 
council  of  seven,  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  a 
legislative  council  of  fourteen  members,  of  whom 
five  are  officials,  two  are  appointed  by  the  governor, 
and  seven  are  elected  under  a  restricted  suffrage. 
The  president  has  a  casting  vote.  In  Montserrat 
the  council  consists  of  two  official  and  three  non- 
official  members,  none  of  whom  are  elected ;  and  in 
The  Virgins  there  are  four  official  and  three  non- 
official,  all  appointees. 

There  is  a  legislative  council  of  the  whole  colony, 
which  is  chosen  for  a  term  of  three  years,  and  meets 
once  a  year  at  the  capital  on  the  island  of  Antigua. 
This  consists  of  ten  appointed  and  ten  elected  mem- 
bers, the  former  including  six  public  officials  and 
four  others  who  are  selected  by  the  governor  from 
the  elected,  or  the  non-official  appointed,  members 
of  the  separate  island  councils.  The  so-called 
elected  members  of  the  colonial  council  are  not 
elected  by  popular  vote,  but  by  the  island  councils 
from  their  own  elected  or  non-official  members,  four 


292  THE    WEST  INDIES 

from  Antigua,  four  from  St.  Christopher-Nevis,  and 
two  from  Dominica,  leaving  Montserrat  and  The  Vir- 
gins without  representation.  The  president  of  this 
colonial  legislative  council  is  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernor from  the  members  who  come  from  the  island 
councils,  and  the  body  is  permitted  to  choose  a  vice- 
president  for  itself.  How  much  of  self-government 
or  of  popular  representation  there  is  in  this  system 
must  be  obvious ;  and,  so  far  as  local  autonomy  in  the 
separate  islands  is  concerned,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
add  that  the  legislative  council  of  the  colony  can  re- 
peal or  amend  any  act  of  an  island  council  or  legislate 
in  its  place.  Moreover  the  governor  can  summon, 
prorogue,  or  dissolve  the  colonial  council  at  will. 

The  reason  for  this  arbitrary  form  of  government 
for  these  islands  no  doubt  is  that  the  population  is 
made  up  chiefly  of  negroes  who  were  slaves  a  gen- 
eration or  two  ago,  and  of  their  descendants,  more 
or  less  mixed  with  other  races.  In  the  English 
islands  there  is  less  of  the  mixed  blood,  or  of 
"  coloured  "  population  as  distinguished  from 
"  black,"  than  in  the  others,  for  English  sentiment 
has  been  more  repugnant  to  miscegenation,  which 
has  been  pretty  general  in  the  French  and  Dutch 
islands.  This  same  sentiment,  or  "  race  prejudice," 
left  the  emancipated  slaves  in  a  more  abject  condi- 
tion of  ignorance  and  incapacity  for  civic  duties. 
While  in  servitude  they  received  neither  secular  nor 
religious  instruction,  and  practically  nothing  was 
afterwards  done  to  fit  them  for  the  exercise  of  politi- 
cal rights.  As  they  largely  outnumbered  the  whites, 
there  was  no  apparent  desire  to  intrust  them  with 
such  rights  or  to  prepare  them  for  their  exercise. 


CHAPTER    XXIX 

THE   VIRGINS   AND   THE   DANISH   ISLANDS 

ON  his  second  voyage  in  November,  1493,  Co- 
lumbus came  up  the  Caribbees  scattering  holy 
names  among  the  islands,  and  when  he  reached  the 
last  group  before  turning  westward  he  disposed  of 
the  whole  procession  by  calling  them  "  The  Vir- 
gins," in  honour  of  St.  Ursula  and  the  spotless  band 
she  led  through  Europe  to  be  slaughtered  by  the 
Huns.  As  he  departed  he  bestowed  separate  names 
on  St.  Thomas  and  St.  John,  and  saw  in  the  dis- 
tance on  his  left  a  verdant  island  which  he  endowed 
with  the  name  of  the  Holy  Cross,  Santa  Cruz. 
These  three  now  belong  to  Denmark,  but  the  rest 
of  The  Virgins  are  part  of  the  British  "  Leeward 
Islands  Colony. ' '  There  are  said  to  be  a  hundred  of 
them,  but  for  the  most  part  they  are  a  barren  lot, 
mere  wind-blown  islets,  with  scanty  vegetation  and 
no  inhabitants.  Though  they  occupy  a  watery  space 
of  nearly  one  hundred  miles  by  twenty,  their  total 
inhabited  area  is  only  fifty-seven  square  miles,  and 
their  population  about  5000.     On  the  few  peopled 

293 


294  THE    WEST  INDIES 

spots  there  is  a  little  raising  of  sugar  and  cotton, 
and  latterly  of  sisal,  and  some  pasturing  of  cattle, 
and  here  and  there  guano  is  found,  or  salt  is  ob- 
tained ;  but  the  population  has  long  been  on  the 
decline,  and  the  life  of  The  Virgins  seems  to  have 
been  waning. 

The  two  most  important  islands  are  Tortola  and 
Virgin  Gorda.  The  former  is  crescent-shaped  and 
traversed  by  a  ridge  which  rises  into  one  peak  1800 
feet  above  the  sea.  Just  north  of  the  island  a  line 
of  reefs  beginning  with  "  Jorst  Van  Dyck's  Guano 
Isle  "  runs  to  St.  Thomas,  and  another  extends  from 
Virgin  Gorda  to  St.  John.  These  inclose  that  ex- 
panse of  water  like  an  inland  sea  which  is  called  the 
"  Road  of  the  Virgins."  The  vagrant  buccaneers 
used  to  wander  in  here  and  make  a  retreat  of  Tor- 
tola,  but  they  were  succeeded  by  a  sedate  Quaker 
community,  which  tried  an  unsuccessful  experiment 
of  cultivating  plantations  with  free  negro  labour. 
Their  unprofitable  example  was  not  followed  for  a 
long  time  after;  and  since  slavery  was  abolished 
Tortola  has  pined  away.  Its  only  port  is  Road 
Town,  and  its  chief  export  is  pineapples,  which  get 
into  the  channels  of  commerce  at  St.  Thomas. 

Virgin  Gorda  consists  mostly  of  rugged  highlands, 
and  is  almost  uninhabited,  though  a  little  fort  is 
maintained  to  guard  the  "  Road."  The  English 
sailors  used  to  call  the  place  Spanish  Town,  which 
the  negroes  corrupted  into"  Penniston."  A  line  of 
reefs  forming  the  outer  rampart  of  the  submarine 
plateau  on  which  The  Virgins  stand  terminates  in 
Anegada  ("  swamped  "),  which  is  half  submerged 


THE  VIRGINS  AND  THE   DANISH  ISLANDS  295 

when  the  waves  run  high,  and  has  been  the  scene  of 
many  a  wreck.  There  used  to  be  tales  of  sunken 
galleons  hereabouts  and  of  treasures  hid  in  caves, 
but  nobody  has  been  able  to  derive  wealth  from  this 
legendary  source.  Some  of  The  Virgins  received 
from  buccaneers  and  other  profane  navigators  less 
sanctimonious  names  than  Columbus  was  wont  to 
bestow.  Besides  Jorst  Van  Dyck's  Guano  Isle, 
here  are  Rum  Island,  Beef  Island,  Prickly  Pear, 
Camphor  and  Salt,  Dutchman's  Cap,  Dead  Man's 
Chest,  and  Broken  Jerusalem.  More  than  once  the 
whole  dreary  group  has  been  lashed  unmercifully  by 
hurricanes. 

Near  these  English  Virgins  is  an  island  with  a 
history.  St.  Thomas  is  known  the  world  over  as 
a  seaport,  a  port  of  call  for  all  manner  of  craft  going 
and  coming  in  those  waters,  while  the  real  name  of 
the  seaport  town,  Charlotte  Amalia,  is  hardly  known 
at  all.  In  fact,  the  port  is  pretty  much  all  there  is 
to  the  island.  St.  Thomas  is  less  than  forty  miles 
east  of  Puerto  Rico,  and  is  thirteen  miles  long  by 
three  wide,  containing  about  thirty-five  square  miles 
of  area.  A  ridge  runs  through  it  lengthwise,  attain- 
ing its  highest  elevation  of  about  15CXD  feet  in  West 
Mountain.  On  the  southern  slope  there  were  sugar 
plantations  in  the  old  slavery  days,  but  latterly  they 
have  been  devoted  mainly  to  growing  maize,  vege- 
tables, and  fruit,  and  to  pastures  of  guinea  grass. 
The  island  is  still  a  place  of  trafific  and  shipping, 
and  nearly  all  its  15,000  people,  of  whom  nine 
tenths  are  blacks,  or  "  coloured  "  in  various  shades, 
live  in  and  about  the  port.     The  bay  on  which  the 


296  THE    WEST  INDIES 

town  is  snugly  built  is  on  the  south  side  of  the 
island.  It  is  nearly  circular  and  almost  landlocked, 
and  is  deep  and  spacious.  The  principal  street  of 
the  town  runs  along  the  curve  of  the  shore  and  out 
into  the  country  on  either  side.  The  background  is 
an  amphitheatre  of  mountains  with  bold  headlands, 
and  within  its  circuit  rise  terraces  of  streets  and  gar- 
dens in  picturesque  fashion,  with  red-tiled  roofs. 
Most  of  the  white  citizens  reside  in  the  outskirts. 
Two  isolated  structures  with  ancient  towers  are 
known  as  the  castles  of  "  Blackbeard  "  and  "  Blue- 
beard "  ;  but,  notwithstanding  the  romantic  sugges- 
tion of  pirate  chiefs,  they  are  known  to  have  been 
built  by  the  government  about  the  year  1700.  The 
port  is  securely  sheltered  from  the  w'inds  of  the 
north  and  east,  but  hurricanes  are  wont  to  come 
from  the  south,  and  in  1819  one  got  in  here  and 
stranded  all  the  vessels  in  the  harbour  and  did  much 
mischief.  One  almost  equally  destructive  forced  an 
entrance  in  1837,  and  another  in  1867. 

The  buccaneers  and  pirates  did  not  fail  to  find 
this  sheltered  bay  and  use  it  as  a  refuge  and  a  lurk- 
ing-place, and  Dutch  and  English  settlers  followed 
in  their  wake,  the  former  in  1657  and  the  latter  in 
1667;  but  in  1671  the  Danish  West  India  and  Guinea 
Company  took  possession  and  set  up  a  trading  sta- 
tion. It  ranked  next  to  Port  Royal,  Jamaica,  in  the 
slave  trade.  It  soon  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
"  Company,"  of  which  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg 
was  the  director.  It  was  maintained  as  neutral 
ground,  and  French  refugees  settled  upon  it  after 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.     About  the 


THE   VIRGINS  AND  THE  DANISH  ISLANDS  297 

middle  of  the  last  century  the  King  of  Denmark 
took  direction  of  the  affairs  of  the  trading  company 
and  made  a  national  possession  of  the  island.  The 
port  was  kept  free  to  all  nations ;  and  at  times  it 
afforded  the  only  place  of  interchange  between  the 
West  Indies  and  Europe. 

In  fact,  through  the  wars  and  contentions  of  two 
centuries  St.  Thomas  profited  by  its  advantage  of 
neutrality.  It  had  been  a  trading-place  for  buc- 
caneers and  smugglers  and  slavers;  and  then  when 
England  and  France  and  Holland  were  fighting 
and  destroying  each  other's  commerce,  it  picked 
up  trade  with  all  the  belligerents  and  with  the 
Spanish  colonies  which  they  were  harrying.  There 
was  little  occasion  for  tilling  the  soil.  It  was 
only  necessary  to  take  toll  on  the  exchanges  that 
constantly  went  on  at  the  wharves.  Through  the 
revolutions  by  which  Spain  lost  her  colonies  St. 
Thomas  also  profited,  and  when  these  commotions 
were  over  it  found  itself  in  the  pathway  of  com- 
merce not  only  from  Europe  to  the  West  Indies  and 
the  old  "  Spanish  main,"  but  from  the  United 
States  to  Brazil,  and  it  became  a  harbour  for  refuge, 
for  repairs,  and  for  coaling,  though  it  became  rela- 
tively of  less  importance  than  in  the  old  days  of  sail- 
ing ships.  There  is  a  marine  railway  and  a  floating 
dock  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long,  completed  in 
1875,  and  all  the  appliances  of  a  convenient  port  of 
call. 

The  prevailing  language  at  St.  Thomas  is  Eng- 
lish, though  it  is  a  place  of  various  nationalities 
and  many  tongues,  and  the  negroes  have  a  mixed 


298  THE    WEST  INDIES 

patois  of  their  own.  It  swarms  with  grinning  and 
chattering  blacks,  and  the  "  'longshore  "  work  is 
largely  done  by  women,  who  coal  steamers  by 
marching  in  procession  with  baskets  on  their  heads. 
The  streets  are  neat  and  well  kept,  and  alive  with 
fruit  vendors;  the  place  is  healthy  and  comfortable, 
and  is  connected  with  the  world  by  many  lines  of 
steamers  and  by  telegraph.  There  is  a  government 
college  and  a  Roman  Catholic  college  in  Charlotte 
Amalia,  and  some  Moravian  schools.  About  one 
third  of  the  people  are  classified  as  Roman  Catho- 
lics, and  the  English  Church  and  the  Wesleyans  are 
represented  in  the  population  as  well  as  the  Mora- 
vians. There  is  a  public  library  and  reading-room 
and  two  hospitals,  besides  the  quarantine  station  on 
Light-House  Point.  Little  evidence  of  the  State 
of  Denmark  is  seen  about  the  place  except  the  small 
garrison  and  its  flag,  and  Denmark  has  long  been 
willing  to  part  with  it.  Secretary  Seward  bought 
it  for  the  United  States  in  1866  for  $5,000,000,  but 
Congress  refused  to  ratify  the  bargain,  to  the  great 
disgust  of  the  Danish  king  and  the  mortification  of 
many  Americans. 

St.  John  is  of  small  account.  It  has  a  little  town 
of  the  same  name  on  the  north  coast,  and  hardly 
more  than  1000  inhabitants  all  told,  who  raise  a 
little  sugar  and  coffee  and  the  fruit  and  vegetables 
whereby  they  live.  It  is  near  Tortola  and  off  the 
beaten  track  of  commerce,  but  on  its  eastern  side  is 
a  good  harbour  of  refuge  from  the  prowling  hurri- 
cane, little  resorted  to  except  by  fishing  vessels. 
The  English,  with  characteristic  facility  in  pervert- 


THE  VIRGINS  AND  THE  DANISH  ISLANDS  299 

ing  foreign  names,  called  this  harbour  "  Crawl  Bay," 
though  the  Spanish  designation  was  Corral,  meaning 
an  inclosure.  The  island  came  into  the  possession 
of  Denmark  by  purchase  as  a  bargain,  but  proved  to 
be  of  little  value. 

Santa  Cruz,  which  stands  isolated  about  forty 
miles  south  of  St.  Thomas,  and  is  rather  an  outpost, 
by  submarine  attachment,  of  the  Caribbean  range  of 
islands  than  an  appurtenance  of  the  Virgin  group, 
was  also  profaned  by  the  presence  of  the  buccaneers. 
It  was  afterwards  in  charge  of  the  Knights  of  Malta, 
but  passed  from  them  to  the  possession  of  France, 
and  was  sold  to  Denmark  in  1733  for  $150,000. 
The  island  is  about  twenty-five  miles  long  and  five 
or  six  miles  wide,  extending  east  and  west.  Parallel 
to  the  coast  in  the  western  part  is  a  ridge  which 
culminates  in  Mount  Eagle,  1300  feet  high.  The 
eastern  part  is  hilly  and  the  central  undulating,  and 
on  the  south  shore  there  are  some  flat  marshy  spaces 
with  lagoons  of  brackish  water.  Of  the  5 1 , 1 68  acres 
of  land,  all  but  about  4000  acres  is  tillable,  and  in 
former  times  fully  half  of  this  was  covered  with  sugar 
plantations.  Since  the  abolition  of  slavery  and  the 
depression  of  the  cane-sugar  interest,  it  has  greatly 
languished  in  comparison  with  the  flourishing  days 
of  yore, when  its  sugar,  molasses,  ajid  rum  figured 
conspicuously  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  Rum 
is  in  fact  what  chiefly  makes  the  name  of  Santa  Cruz 
familiar. 

The  soil  of  the  island  is  extremely  fertile  and  cap- 
able of  a  great  variety  of  products;  its  climate  is 
healthy  for  the  tropics,  and  in  natural  attractions  it 


300  THE    WEST  INDIES 

is  one  of  the  most  charming  of  the  West  Indies;  but 
it  is  cut  off  from  the  world  except  for  trade  through 
St.  Thomas,  and  white  settlers  do  not  flock  to  it. 
The  population  of  25,000  consists  mostly  of  negroes, 
and  the  plantation  owners  are  largely  Englishmen, 
whose  language  prevails  in  the  island.  The  capital 
is  Christianstaed,  at  the  head  of  an  inlet  on  the  north 
coast  which  admits  vessels  of  moderate  draught.  Its 
white,  pink,  and  yellow  houses,  with  red  or  purple 
tiles,  give  it  a  picturesque  appearance  from  the  out- 
side, but  on  close  inspection  they  seem  rather  shabby 
and  dirty.  The  streets  are  unpaved,  and  the  cabins 
of  the  negroes  are  mostly  flimsy  structures,  but  in 
the  country  around  there  are  good  roads  lined  with 
palm,  tamarind,  and  mango  trees,  and  leading 
through  luxuriant  gardens  and  plantations  out  to 
the  wooded  heights.  The  English  name  of  the 
town  is  Basin,  or  Bassin,  which  seems  to  be  a  per- 
version of  Basse  End. 

The  only  other  place  of  importance  is  Frederick- 
staed  on  the  west  coast,  popularly  called  "  West 
End."  It  is  on  an  open  roadstead  and  accessible 
only  to  small  craft ;  but  it  is  also  in  the  foreground 
of  rich  plantations  and  verdant  and  flowery  fields. 
This  place  was  attacked  and  burned  at  the  time  of 
the  insurrection  of  blacks  in  1878,  w^hich  was  caused 
by  the  hard  conditions  under  which  they  were  bound 
to  labour  by  yearly  contracts  after  emancipation. 
The  trade  of  Santa  Cruz,  always  confined  to  sugar, 
molasses,  and  rum,  has  declined,  and  it  is  much  less 
flourishing  than  formerly.  The  governor  of  the 
Danish   colony  resides   at  Christianstaed   half   the 


THE  VIRGINS  AND  THE  DANISH  ISLANDS  30I 

year  and  at  St.  Thomas  the  other  half,  and  his 
presence  and  that  of  two  small  garrisons,  one  at 
Basse  End  and  the  other  at  West  End,  are  about 
the  only  reminders  of  the  Danish  mother  country. 


CHAPTER  XXX 


ANGUILLA,    ST.    MARTIN,    ST.    BARTHOLOMEW, 
BARBUDA,    ANTIGUA 

BETWEEN  the  broad,  deep  channel  that  sepa- 
rates the  submarine  plateau  of  the  Greater 
Antilles  and  The  Virgins  from  the  submerged  mount- 
ain system  whose  crests  appear  in  the  double  line  of 
the  Caribbees,  and  the  clear  passage  of  forty  miles 
which  crosses  that  system  north  of  Guadaloupe,  lies 
an  irregular  group  of  a  dozen  inhabited  and  culti- 
vated islands  divided  in  ownership  between  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  Holland.  Part  of  them  are  in 
the  inner  range  of  igneous  and  volcanic  peaks,  which 
must  have  sprung  originally  from  a  vast  rift  in  the 
earth's  crust  far  below  the  present  surface  of  the 
water.  The  others  are  in  the  outer  and  less  elevated 
line  of  calcareous  and  coralline  structures,  built  upon 
a  ridge  which  remained  below  the  level  at  which  the 
waters  finally  came  to  rest.  The  latter  begin  farther 
to  the  north  than  the  others,  and  the  first  in  the 
series  after  the  barren  and  wind-swept  "  Sombrero  " 
and  "  The  Dogs,"  whose  only  marketable  products 
are  guano  and  phosphate  of  lime,  is  Anguilla. 

302 


ANGUILLA    AN'D   ST.   MAE  TIN  303 

This  name  means  "  snake,"  and  is  supposed  to  be 
due  to  the  appearance  of  the  long,  narrow,  low-lying 
strip  of  land  weltering  in  the  sea;  but  it  is  generally 
attributed  to  Herrera,  the  earliest  historian  of  the 
Spanish-American  colonies,  who  really  called  the 
island  Aguila,  or  "  Eagle."  It  is  about  sixteen 
miles  long  and  varies  from  half  a  mile  to  three  miles 
in  width.  It  is  a  breezy,  healthy  piece  of  ground, 
but  its  2500  people  are  mostly  negroes  engaged  in 
breeding  cattle  and  ponies,  and  raising  small  crops 
of  Indian  corn  and  tobacco,  though  salt  and  phos- 
phate of  lime  figure  among  its  meagre  exports. 
These  reach  a  market  at  St.  Thomas.  There  is 
another  and  smaller  strip  running  off  to  the  north- 
east, called  Anguilletta,  or  the  "  Snakelet."  An- 
guilla  belongs  to  the  presidency  of  St.  Christopher- 
Nevis,  and  a  stipendiary  magistrate  represents 
public  authority  among  its  peaceable  inhabitants. 

Barely  five  miles  south  of  this  little  English 
island,  across  a  shallow  channel,  is  St.  Martin,  the 
only  land  in  the  Antilles  divided  in  its  allegiance 
between  two  European  powers.  It  has  an  area  of 
thirty  square  miles  and  a  population  of  nearly  8000. 
About  three  fifths  both  of  area  and  of  people  are 
French  and  two  fifths  Dutch,  though  in  point  of  fact 
a  large  proportion  of  the  settlers  were  English,  and 
their  language  still  prevails.  The  division  between 
France  and  the  Netherlands  was  peaceably  made  in 
1648,  and  has  remained  undisturbed  through  all 
subsequent  commotions.  The  French  part  is  in  the 
north,  and  there  is  a  considerable  elevation  there, 
rising  to   1920  feet   in   Paradise   Peak.     There  are 


304  THE    WEST  INDIES 

some  lower  summits  to  the  south  of  this,  and  then 
a  gradual  slope  to  the  coast.  On  the  west  is  a  low 
peninsula  called  the  Basses-Terres,  or  lowlands,  con- 
nected with  the  shore  by  a  sandy  isthmus  with 
Simpson's  Lagoon  in  the  middle  of  it.  On  the  east- 
ern and  southern  coasts  are  narrow  inlets  which  run 
far  inland;  and  near  the  middle  of  the  south  shore 
is  Grand  Bay,  at  the  head  of  which  lies  the  Dutch 
town  of  Philipsburg.  Here  is  Fort  William  and  the 
centre  of  such  authority  as  is  exercised  in  behalf  of 
the  colony  of  Curasao,  of  which  this  is  a  remote  de- 
pendency. The  French  capital  is  Marigot  on  the 
west  side  just  north  of  Basses-Terres,  where  there  is 
a  well  sheltered  port.  St.  Martin  used  to  be  much 
given  to  sugar  raising,  but  since  that  became  un- 
profitable its  principal  salable  products  have  been 
provisions  and  salt.  It  raises  fruits  and  vegetables 
and  some  cattle,  and  to  the  north  of  Philipsburg  is 
a  large  "  salt  pan,"  worked  by  a  French  and  Dutch 
company, 

A  little  to  the  south-east  of  St.  Martin  is  the 
French  island  of  St.  Bartholomew,  familiarly  called 
"  St.  Bart,"  and,  like  the  French  part  of  St.  Martin, 
a  dependency  of  the  colony  of  Guadeloupe.  It  is  a 
crescent,  only  six  miles  long  from  east  to  west,  and 
three  miles  across  in  its  widest  part,  and  its  popula- 
tion of  less  than  3000  consists  mostly  of  negroes. 
Though  the  original  possessors  were  French,  the 
English  language  is  chiefly  spoken  now.  The  island 
was  first  settled  in  1648,  when  the  French  divided 
St.  Martin  with  the  Dutch  ;  but  when  the  ambitious 
Gustavus  was  trying  the  expansion  and  colonising 


ST.    BARTHOLOMEW  AND  BARBUDA  305 

policy  in  1784,  it  was  ceded  to  Sweden.  That  ac- 
counts for  the  name  of  the  present  capital,  Gustavia, 
and  of  Fort  Gustave,  which  are  on  the  western  side 
of  the  island,  where  there  is  a  sheltered  harbour  that 
will  admit  vessels  of  eight  or  ten  feet  draught.  In 
1877,  France  bought  the  island  back  for  275,000 
francs.  The  shores  are  much  indented  and  the  sur- 
face irregular,  rising  into  a  limestone  ridge  in  the 
interior  about  1000  feet  high.  There  are  no  streams 
or  springs,  and  the  hilltops  are  rather  barren,  but 
the  valleys  are  fertile  and  yield  good  crops  of  sugar, 
cotton,  tobacco,  and  fruits,  when  cultivated ;  but 
the  foreign  trade  is  slight  and  absorbed  in  that  of 
Guadeloupe. 

St.  Bartholomew  is  at  the  end  of  a  submarine 
bank,  and  across  a  broad  expanse  of  deep  water  to 
the  south  of  east,  forty  miles  away,  lies  Barbuda, 
which  belongs  to  the  presidency  of  Antigua,  from 
which  island  it  is  separated  by  a  stretch  of  thirty 
miles  of  shallow  water.  It  is  at  the  end  of  a  sub- 
marine peninsula  reaching  northward  from  the  larger 
island.  While  Barbuda  is  rated  as  a  dependency  of 
the  Leeward  Islands  colony,  it  is  private  property, 
having  been  granted  to  the  Codrington  family  about 
1680.  It  remained  in  the  family  until  a  recent 
period,  when  it  was  purchased  by  some  private  cap- 
italists, who  have  only  to  keep  up  the  old  obligation 
of  presenting  a  fat  sheep  to  the  governor  when  he 
deigns  to  make  a  visit  to  the  vassal  of  his  sovereign. 
This  may  be  commuted  to  a  goodly  buck  or  green 
turtle,  or  perhaps  to  anything  satisfactory  to  the 
visiting  official.     It  is  a  mere  token  of  allegiance. 


306  THE    WEST  INDIES 

The  fact  of  this  private  ownership  and  the  some- 
what isolated  position  of  Barbuda,  as  well  as  its  lack 
of  harbours,  have  prevented  its  industrial  develop- 
ment. It  is  ten  miles  long  by  eight  wide,  low-lying, 
and  beset  with  reefs;  but  though  there  is  a  lack  of 
springs  and  of  running  water,  the  land  is  fertile  and 
would  produce  fine  crops  of  the  staples  of  sugar, 
cotton,  and  tobacco,  as  well  as  indigo,  fruits,  and 
vegetables.  But  it  is  little  cultivated,  and  the  en- 
tire population  is  little  more  than  looo,  mostly 
connexions  and  dependents  of  the  proprietors. 
Much  of  the  land  is  thickly  wooded  and  in  the  na- 
ture of  game  preserves.  This  is  one  of  the  few 
islands  in  which  the  whites  outnumber  the  blacks, 
but  that  is  doubtless  because  there  has  been  no 
systematic  employment  of  labour  in  the  cultivation 
of  land  or  in  trade,  of  which  there  is  practically 
none.  Sir  William  Codrington  gave  a  church  and 
school  to  the  little  community  in  1843. 

Antigua,  which  is  at  the  southern  end  of  this 
outer  line  of  islands  and  between  forty  and  fifty 
miles  from  Guadeloupe,  is  the  centre  of  British 
authority  in  the  Leeward  Islands,  The  size  of 
the  island  is  variously  stated  by  different  authori- 
ties, but  is  perhaps  twenty-five  miles  by  fifteen.  It 
is  approximately  oval,  with  its  longest  axis  nearly 
east  and  west.  The  highest  land  is  in  the  south- 
west, and  though  the  elevation  nowhere  attains 
1500  feet,  there  are  steep  cliffs  and  picturesque 
ravines,  festooned  with  rank  vegetation.  This 
limestone  region  would  make  a  tolerable  stronghold 
at  need.     The  heights  are  wooded,  and  the  general 


ANTIGUA  307 

surface  of  the  island  is  varied  with  hill  and  dale  and 
covered  with  verdure,  though  subject  to  occasional 
drought.  The  formation  is  calcareous,  with  marine 
and  fresh-water  deposits  in  which  animal  and  vege- 
table remains  appear.  There  are  no  surface  streams, 
and  the  few  springs  are  brackish,  so  that  the  water 
supply  has  to  be  stored  from  the  direct  rainfall.  In 
1789,  there  was  a  prolonged  drought  which  caused 
the  death  of  many  cattle  and  general  distress.  Now 
reservoirs  are  more  liberally  supplied,  the  capital 
having  one  which  will  hold  600,000  gallons.  Not- 
withstanding the  liability  to  drought,  the  soil  is  fer- 
tile and  in  former  times  there  were  flourishing  sugar 
plantations.  These  have  languished  of  late,  and 
little  has  been  done  to  fill  their  place,  though  the 
cultivation  of  fruit  has  been  increased,  and  special 
attention  is  given  to  pineapples. 

Notwithstanding  the  generally  calcareous  and 
coralline  character  of  this  island,  there  is  evidence 
in  English  Harbour,  on  the  south  coast,  of  the 
igneous  and  volcanic  formation  that  belongs  partic- 
ularly to  the  inner  line  of  Caribbees,  which  is  broken 
here  with  a  gap  of  forty  miles  from  Montserrat  to 
Guadeloupe.  This  harbour  is  in  fact  formed  by  a 
group  of  low  craters  which  have  been  invaded  and 
swamped  by  the  ocean.  Although  there  is  a  capa- 
cious and  sheltered  port  at  this  place,  it  has  been  so 
long  used  for  a  naval  station,  barracks,  dockyard, 
and  arsenal,  that  trade  has  kept  away.  The  com- 
mercial port  is  on  the  north  side  of  the  island,  where 
the  capital  of  the  colony,  St.  John,  stands  on  an 
eminence    at   the  head    of   a   bay,    affording   good 


3o8  THE    WEST  INDIES 

anchorage  for  vessels  of  twelve  to  fourteen  feet 
draught.  St.  John  has  a  population  of  about  i6,- 
ooo,  which  is  probably  half  that  of  the  entire  island. 
It  is  the  seat  of  government  of  the  Leeward 
Islands  colony,  as  well  as  the  Antigua  presidency, 
and  has  such  pubhc  buildings  as  the  colony  affords. 
It  is  a  well  built  town  with  stone  houses  and  a  fine 
cathedral  with  two  yellow  towers.  The  island  is 
divided  into  six  parishes,  each  with  its  town  or  vil- 
lage and  its  church  and  chapel.  With  some  varia- 
tion of  industries  it  might  still  be  a  thriving  place, 
but  it  has  long  been  declining,  because  wholly  de- 
voted to  sugar  in  slavery  times.  The  population  at 
the  time  of  emancipation  in  1834  was  2000  whites 
and  33,000  negroes.  Since  then  the  whites  have 
diminished  in  number  and  the  blacks  increased,  while 
the  old  plantation  life  has  decayed. 

As  Columbus  came  up  tha  islands  on  that  second 
voyage  he  christened  this  one  for  Santa  Maria  la 
Antigua,  with  whose  fane  in  Valladolid  he  was 
familiar.  It  was  in  that  same  church  that  his  mortal 
remains  were  first  deposited.  In  1520,  a  Spaniard 
named  Serrano  made  an  effort  to  colonise  the  island, 
but  the  Caribs  objected  so  strenuously  that  he  had 
to  desist.  Even  when  that  persistent  English  colo- 
niser. Sir  Thomas  Warner,  first  settled  here  in  1632, 
he  had  some  desperate  fights  with  the  Caribs,  who 
were  not  wont,  like  the  Arawaks,  to  give  up  their 
land  without  a  struggle.  There  is  a  romantic  story 
of  an  English  governor  whose  wife  was  stolen  by  a 
Carib  chief  and  carried  off  to  Dominica,  and  who 
after  recovering  her  went  insane  with  jealousy.     The 


ANTIGUA 


309 


island  was  granted  to  Lord  Willoughby  after  the 
restoration,  but  the  French  seized  it  at  about 
the  same  time.  It  was  definitely  conceded  to  Great 
Britain  by  the  treaty  of  Breda  in  1667.  After  the 
plantation  system  was  well  under  way  there  was  a 
serious  uprising  of  the  negro  slaves  in  1736,  which 
was  put  down  with  a  relentless  severity  that  was  re- 
garded as  necessary  to  the  safety  of  the  small  white 
population.  Earthquakes  and  hurricanes  have 
troubled  the  island  at  times.  There  was  a  violent 
shaking  in  1833  and  a  furious  blowing  in  1835,  and 
in  1 841  the  city  of  St.  John  was  wellnigh  destroyed 
by  fire. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

SABA,    ST.    EUSTATIUS,    ST.    CHRISTOPHER,    NEVIS, 
MONTSERRAT 

AT  the  head  of  the  line  of  volcanic  peaks  that 
come  up  out  of  the  depths  of  the  ocean  are 
the  two  little  Dutch  islands  of  Saba  and  St.  Eusta- 
tius,  which  are  dependencies  of  far-off  Curasao. 
The  former  is  scarcely  more  than  a  volcanic  cone, 
rising  sheer  out  of  the  waves  2800  feet,  but  the  in- 
ternal fires  long  since  went  out.  It  is  dead,  and  in 
an  old  crater  on  the  western  side,  eight  hundred  feet 
above  the  shore,  is  the  little  town  of  Bottom.  As 
one  lands  by  a  small  boat  on  the  rocky  beach,  and 
climbs  the  steep  path  appropriately  called  the  "  lad- 
der," up  which  human  freight-carriers  go  with  loads 
on  their  heads,  he  imagines  that  "  Top  "  would  be 
a  better  name.  But  the  crumbhng  of  the  sides  and 
the  filling  up  of  the  depths  of  what  was  once  a  fiery 
vent  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth  has  made  the 
"  bottom  "  of  a  depression  the  dwelling-place  of  the 
little  Dutch  community.  The  rim  of  the  Titanic 
cup  still  surrounds  it,  and  it  is  through  a  break  in 
this  that  it  is  reached  from  the  steep  acclivity. 
There  is  another  break  on  the  opposite  side,  through 

310 


ST.    £  US  TAT/ US  3II 

which  one  may  wander  over  what  there  is  of  the 
island  besides  the  craggy  mountain  top,  but  in  this 
Bottom  are  concentrated  practically  all  the  inhabit- 
ants, barely  2000,  of  whom  perhaps  one  third  are 
negroes.  The  Dutch  families  are  rosy-faced  and 
cheerful  folk,  who  speak  English  and  build  the  best 
boats  in  all  the  islands,  though  they  have  no  timber 
and  no  facilities  for  navigation. 

St.  Eustatius  is  larger,  and  its  dead  volcanoes  are 
not  so  tall.  The  culminating  peak  is  about  2000 
feet  above  the  sea-level,  but  it  is  much  damaged  by 
time.  It  has  crumbled  away  on  the  northern  side 
so  as  to  exhibit  a  yawning  gap,  and  the  central 
crater,  called  the  "  punch-bowl,"  is  overgrown  with 
dense  vegetation,  and  has  become  the  lurking- 
place  of  reptiles  and  gruesome  insects.  From  the 
towering  mass  slope  peaceful  hills  and  fertile  valleys 
over  a  limited  area  toward  the  sea.  On  the  west 
side  is  Orangetown,  situated  on  an  open  roadstead, 
and  giving  access  to  the  interior  gorges  and  dells, 
which  are  often  visited  by  excursion  parties  from 
St.  Kitt's,  where  erst  the  smuggler,  the  buccaneer, 
and  the  pirate  found  refuge  from  pursuit,  or  con- 
cealment for  ill-gotten  commodities.  St.  Eustatius 
is  not  what  it  was  in  the  days  when  there  was  vast 
profit  in  illicit  trade  or  gain  in  Dutch  neutrality 
while  France  and  England  fought  over  the  posses- 
sions of  Spain.  It  has  no  such  stirring  times  as 
when  Rodney  seized  its  port,  confiscated  the  wealth 
of  its  traders,  and  sold  out  their  merchandise  under 
the  hammer.  Now  it  is  little  more  than  a  land  of 
marvels  for  the  occasional  visitor.      Its  population  is 


312  THE    WEST  INDIES 

less  than  3000,  and  only  yams  and  sweet  potatoes 
figure  in  the  statistics  of  its  exports. 

St.  Christopher,  or  St.  Kitt's,  as  the  English  are 
fond  of  calling  it,  has  a  great  deal  of  history  in  pro- 
portion to  its  size.  It  extends  from  north-west  to 
south-east  in  the  form  of  a  rude  oval,  about  thirteen 
miles  long  by  six  wide;  but  a  narrow  handle,  like 
that  of  a  spoon,  stretches  ten  or  twelve  miles  farther, 
ending  with  a  circular  head  having  a  lagoon  in  the 
middle  like  a  crest  or  monogram.  The  entire  area  is 
given  as  sixty-five  square  miles.  Whether  Columbus 
was  so  delighted  with  its  aspect  when  he  first  came 
upon  it  that  he  favoured  it  with  the  name  of  his 
own  special  saint,  or  bestowed  that  appellation  on 
account  of  the  fancied  appearance  of  a  big  mountain 
carrying  a  little  one  on  its  back,  does  not  greatly 
matter.  The  Caribs,  who  had  the  best  right  to 
name  it,  called  it  Liamuiga,  meaning  "  fertile," 
which  exhibits  a  sounder  principle  in  christening. 
The  Spaniards  found  it  expedient  not  to  disturb 
the  Caribs,  but  when  the  English  and  French  came 
with  colonising  intent,  St.  Christopher  was  the  first 
spot  upon  which  they  settled,  and  they  quarrelled 
over  it  for  the  best  part  of  two  centuries.  Sir 
Thomas  Warner  and  his  associates  landed  on  the 
verdant  isle  overlooked  by  its  grim  mountain  top  in 
1623,  and  were  in  so  much  peril  when  the  piratical 
Esnambuc  arrived  some  months  later,  with  his  ships 
disabled  in  a  tussle  with  a  Spanish  galleon,  that  they 
welcomed  French  co-operation  in  wresting  the  land 
from  the  natives.  It  required  some  desperate  fight- 
ing, but  they  were  all  killed  or  driven  out,  and  the 


ST.    CHRISTOPHER  313 

English  took  the  uplands  In  the  middle,  while  the 
French  occupied  both  ends  by  the  sea.  It  is  said 
that  they  established  an  indisputable  boundary  by 
means  of  a  cactus  hedge. 

They  did  not  dwell  long  in  peace.  In  1629,  along 
came  Don  Frederic  de  Toledo,  a  Spanish  admiral, — 
all  Spanish  naval  officers  of  consequence  then,  as 
now,  were  admirals, — and  scattered  them,  some  to 
betake  themselves  to  the  buccaneers  of  Tortuga, 
and  some  to  return  when  the  Spaniard  left  the  island 
again  unoccupied.  French  and  English  resumed 
their  relations  until  their  mother  countries  were  at 
war,  and  then  the  English,  under  Governor  Watts 
and  Colonel  Morgan,  in  1666,  with  the  help  of  some 
settlers  in  Nevis,  undertook  to  drive  the  French  out. 
General  de  la  Salle  came  to  the  rescue  of  the  latter, 
who  turned  the  tables  and  drove  the  English  out ; 
but  the  peace  of  Breda  in  1667  restored  the  status 
quo.  When  England  and  Holland  were  united 
against  France,  after  1688,  there  was  another  fight  in 
St.  Kitt's.  The  French  expelled  the  English  in  1689, 
and  they  got  back  the  next  year,  and  again  the  peace 
of  Ryswick  in  1697  restored  the  old  division ;  but 
that  of  Utrecht  in  17 13  gave  the  whole  island  to 
Great  Britain.  After  that  there  was  more  fighting, 
and  the  French  got  temporary  possession  in  1782, 
St.  Kitt's  being  one  of  the  islands  rescued  by  Rod- 
ney's great  victory  over  De  Grasse.  Since  then  the 
English  sway  has  been  undisputed. 

The  island's  natural  aspect  and  recent  condition 
are  as  interesting  as  its  history.  The  French  called 
their  two  ends  Capesterre  and    Basseterre, — freely 


314  THE    WEST  INDIES 

interpreted  "  highland  "  and  "  lowland  "  ;  and  Basse- 
Terre  is  still  the  name  of  the  capital,  which  the  Eng- 
lish perversely  call  "  Bar  Star,"  while  retaining  the 
French  orthography.  It  is  on  a  sheltered'  bay  on 
the  west  side,  near  where  the  spoon  handle  starts 
toward  Nevis,  and  is  quite  picturesque  with  its  white 
houses  and  red  roofs,  its  ranks  of  cocoanut  and 
cabbage  palms,  its  groves  of  mango  and  orange,  its 
gardens  of  various  fruits  and  flowers  spreading  up 
the  slopes.  In  the  days  when  sugar  plantations 
were  enriching  their  owners, — the  good  old  days 
before  emancipation  and  beet-root  subsidies, — there 
was  a  broad  belt  of  fields  of  waving  cane  on  the 
slopes  all  around  the  island,  with  the  tall  chimneys 
of  the  mills  sticking  up  here  and  there.  The  belt  of 
fertile  field  is  still  there,  but  not  flourishing  as  of 
yore,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  slopes  all  around  the 
island  is  a  fine  road  lined  with  tropical  trees,  shrubs, 
and  varied  vegetation. 

Out  of  the  verdant  slopes  back  of  Basse-Terre  rises 
Monkey  Hill,  and  behind  the  sharp  ridge  towers  the 
awful  form  of  Mount  Misery,  4330  feet  high.  As  a 
side  elevation  near  the  west  coast,  less  than  eight 
hundred  feet  high,  is  Brimstone  Hill,  once  crowned 
with  a  citadel,  and  called  the  "  Gibraltar  of  the  West 
Indies."  Mount  Misery  is  said  to  have  been  so 
named  from  its  occasional  habit  of  sending  down 
floods  and  torrents  which  swept  away  houses  and 
overwhelmed  plantations.  It  was  peculiarly  profuse 
and  reckless  with  one  of  these  in  1880.  This  hoary 
old  volcano  has  lost  the  vigour  of  its  early  days  and 
has  been  very  quiet  for  a  century  or  two ;  but  there 


F  f  " 

I  •L,AJ, 


ST.    CHRISTOPHER  AND  NEVIS  315 

is  a  crater  1000  feet  deep,  which  in  the  wet  season 
forms  a  dismal  lake  fringed  with  palm  trees;  and 
there  are  fissures  through  which  sulphurous  gases 
still  issue. 

The  population  of  St.  Christopher  is  something 
less  than  30,000,  and  has  not  been  increasing  of  late 
except  among  the  blacks.  There  is  but  a  small 
white  element,  descendants  and  representatives  of 
the  old  landowners,  and  Portuguese  traders  from 
the  Azores.  Sugar  was  the  one  great  staple,  and  it 
has  not  been  replaced  by  anything  greatly  profitable, 
for  lack  of  enterprise.  The  negroes  are  not  fond  of 
working  on  the  estates,  and  cannot  get  possession 
of  small  allotments  of  land  to  cultivate  for  them- 
selves, and  the  industrial  condition  is  not  satisfac- 
tory. Much  fruit  is  grown,  and  it  pervades  the 
town  of  Basse-Terre,  which  contains  the  life  of  the 
island,  with  a  mingling  of  shades  of  colour  in  com- 
plexion and  dress  as  picturesque  as  that  of  the  houses 
and  gardens. 

Nevis,  as  the  English  have  always  called  it,  think- 
ing perhaps  of  Ben  Nevis,  though  Columbus  rever- 
ently named  it  Nieves  for  "  Our  Lady  of  Snows  "  in 
Spain,  is  hardly  more  than  a  pendant  to  St.  Kitt's 
geographically,  as  it  is  politically.  The  passage 
between,  called  "  The  Narrows,"  is  barely  two 
miles  across.  Nevis  is  about  seven  miles  long  by 
six  wide,  and  is  mostly  occupied  by  a  volcanic  cone 
3460  feet  high,  flanked  on  either  side  by  a  lower 
summit.  The  fertile  land,  which  used  to  be  covered 
with  rich  plantations,  is  a  mere  margin  around  this 
mountain  mass,  and  is  no  longer  a  flourishing  girdle 


3l6  THE    WEST  INDIES 

of  sugar-cane.  Of  the  whole  area  of  24,640  acres, 
only  about  6000  can  be  cultivated,  and  that  mostly 
on  steep  slopes,  which,  however,  are  extremely  pro- 
ductive like  all  the  ancient  lava  soil.  Sugar  and 
molasses  were  the  only  products  for  export,  and 
since  they  became  unprofitable  the  little  island  has 
gone  into  a  decline. 

Its  population  numbers  a  few  thousand,  mostly 
negroes  and  "  coloured  "  now;  and  Charlestown  is 
a  decaying  village  on  the  open  roadstead  in  the 
south-west.  Near  by  are  warm  sulphur  springs  where 
there  used  to  be  fine  baths,  making  it  a  watering- 
place  for  visitors  from  far  and  near ;  and  there  was 
genteel  society  in  Charlestown  in  the  old  times. 
We  must  not  forget  that  here  was  the  birthplace  of 
Alexander  Hamilton,  who  went  to  the  United  States 
in  his  youth  to  become  one  of  the  leading  statesmen 
of  the  infant  republic  ;  and  it  is  worth  while  recalling 
again  that  Horatio  Nelson  was  here  captivated  by 
the  charming  widow  Fanny  Nisbet,  and  was  married 
to  her  at  the  old  Fig  Tree  Church  on  the  road  out 
of  town  in  1787.  It  is  not  so  pleasing  to  remember 
how,  when  he  became  a  famous  admiral,  he  wrung 
the  heart  of  the  faithful  wife,  lured  away  by  the 
brazen  attractions  of  that  aristocratic  huzzy.  Lady 
Hamilton. 

We  may  note  on  our  way  to  Montserrat  that  the 
little  islet  of  Redonda  has  a  few  inhabitants  and 
belongs  to  the  presidency  of  Antigua.  The  bold, 
steep  shores  and  jagged  heights  of  Montserrat  re- 
minded Columbus  of  the  old  Catalonian  monastery, 
where  Ignatius  Loyola  "  promoted  "  the  Society  of 
Jesus.     Hence  its  name.     It  is  thirty  miles  to  the 


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MON  TSERRA  T  3  1 7 

north  of  west  from  Antigua,  so  that  the  volcanic 
range  of  this  island  group  is  shorter  at  both  ends 
than  the  calcareous  bulwark  to  the  east.  The  island 
is  nearly  oval,  twelve  miles  long  and  eight  miles 
wide  at  the  most,  and  two  thirds  of  its  area  is  taken 
up  by  volcanic  mountains,  which  give  slight  evidence 
of  their  wonted  fires  in  puffs  of  sulphurous  vapour 
from  La  Soufri^re.  The  culminating  peak  of  the 
sierra  is  3000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  some  of  the 
heights  are  inaccessible  on  account  of  sheer  preci- 
pices and  impassable  chasms.  The  eastern  slopes 
are  steep  and  covered  with  forests,  containing  valu- 
able timber,  but  those  of  the  west  are  gentler,  and 
in  former  times  were  covered  with  plantations, 
mostly  of  sugar-cane. 

A  bit  of  enterprise  in  Montserrat  has  shown  that 
some  things  can  be  done  as  well  as  others.  Some 
thrifty  Quakers  back  in  the  fifties  began  raising 
limes  and  extracting  the  juice,  and  the  new  in- 
dustry has  grown  until  it  supplies  the  English 
market  with  lime  juice  and  citric  acid.  There  are 
large  groves  of  lime  trees,  but  there  are  also  fields 
of  cotton  and  of  arrowroot,  and  this  is  one  of 
the  most  densely  peopled  and  prosperous  of  all 
the  islands,  though  that  only  signifies  some  10,- 
000  people,  for  the  habitable  area  is  small.  Its  one 
town  is  Plymouth  in  the  south-west,  neatly  built 
and  thriving,  but  with  hardly  two  hundred  white 
residents.  There  is  no  harbour,  and  the  place  is 
only  visited  by  coasting  vessels  from  St.  John  or 
Basse-Terre.  The  climate  is  mild  and  healthful  and 
the  scenery  picturesque,  and  Montserrat  has  been 
called  the  "  Montpelier  of  the  West." 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

GUADELOUPE 

THE  three  relatively  large  islands  which  constitute 
the  middle  links  of  the  great  Caribbean  chain 
are  distinctively  French,  though  the  middle  one  of 
the  three  has  been  in  the  possession  of  Great  Britain 
for  more  than  a  hundred  years,  with  a  short  inter- 
ruption early  in  the  present  century,  and  is  now 
a  member  of  her  Leeward  Islands  colony.  The 
largest  and  most  northerly,  Guadeloupe,  marks  the 
convergence,  almost  the  coalescence,  of  the  great 
igneous  range,  with  its  dead  or  slumbering  volcanoes, 
and  the  calcareous  ridge  that  forms  the  external 
barrier  on  the  ocean  side.  In  fact,  it  consists  of  two 
islands  lying  side  by  side  and  separated  by  a  pass- 
age one  hundred  feet  wide  where  they  come  nearest 
to  a  junction, — one  of  them  rugged  and  mountain- 
ous, with  exhausted  and  dilapidated  craters  here  and 
there,  the  other  flat,  with  marshy  spots,  and  still 
wrought  upon  by  the  coral  builders. 

By  a  curious  freak  of  nomenclature,  the  one  that 
is  full  of  mountain  peaks  and  ridges  and  of  lofty  up- 
lands is  called  Basse-Terre ;  and  the  really  lowland 
segment,  though  smaller  in  area,  is  called  Grande- 

318 


GUADELOUPE  3I9 

Terre.  But  the  French  had  a  general  way  of  calling 
the  upper  end  or  the  windward  side  of  islands,  in  the 
Caribbees,  "  Capesterre,"  or  headland,  and  the  lee- 
ward side,  which  was  generally  lower,  "  Basseterre," 
or  lowland.  The  latter  term  seems  to  have  been 
first  applied  to  the  lower  part  of  what  may  be  con- 
sidered Guadeloupe  proper,  where  the  town  of  Basse- 
Terre  now  is,  and  afterwards  extended  to  the  whole, 
without  reference  to  the  character  of  the  twin  island 
on  the  east,  which  came  to  be  called  Grande-Terre, 
because  it  had  a  larger  area  that  was  available  for 
cultivation. 

In  the  north-west  the  highest  peak  is  Grosse  Mon- 
tague, 2370  feet,  from  which  jagged  ridges  radiate 
in  different  directions.  Not  far  from  the  middle  of 
the  west  coast  is  Deux  Mamelles,  2540  feet  high,  and 
toward  the  south  the  great  cone  of  La  Sdufri^re, 
which  reaches  an  elevation  of  4900  feet.  The  crest 
of  the  latter  rises  from  a  plain  which  was  an  ancient 
crater,  and  there  are  other  vestiges  of  volcanic  action 
in  remote  ages  besides  the  comparatively  modern 
rupture.  Not  only  are  there  filled-up  craters  and 
deposits  of  sulphur,  but  gases  and  sulphurous  va- 
pours still  issue  at  times  from  the  crevices,  while 
near  the  foot  of  the  Mamelles,  on  the  very  verge  of 
the  sea,  are  the  Puits  Bouillants,  where  vapours  puff 
out  of  the  sand  and  bubble  up  from  the  water. 
There  is  a  sinuous  ridge  throughout  the  length  of 
the  island,  and  at  the  southern  extremity  a  peak 
called  Caraibe  rises  2300  feet. 

Among  the  mountain  peaks  and  ridges  are  many 
wild  and  verdurous  gorges,  and  the  upland  valleys 


320  THE    WEST  INDIES 

slope  in  fertile  expanse  toward  the  coast.  The  lower 
lands  have  all  the  rich  fertility  and  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tion of  the  other  volcanic  isles,  for  this  section  of 
Guadeloupe  is  watered  by  many  streams.  Considera- 
ble stretches  are  well  cultivated,  the  lower  levels 
being  covered  with  sugar  plantations  and  the  hills 
with  coffee  gardens,  while  tobacco,  cotton,  and 
arrowroot  are  raised  to  some  extent,  and  cattle  farms 
are  scattered  among  the  hills.  The  natural  growths 
are  those  common  to  this  range  of  islands,  a  variety 
of  palms,  and  the  "  palmiste"  with  its  spreading  top, 
mangoes,  and  tamarinds,  the  dark  green  breadfruit 
tree,  various  tropical  fruits,  and  rank  vines  and  ferns, 
— all  the  verdure  and  bloom  of  a  land  of  eternal 
summer.  There  is  little  that  is  peculiar  in  the  animal 
life,  but  the  deadly  fer-de-lance,  or  lance-head  snake, ' 
is  first  encountered  here  on  our  southward  course. 

The  highest  elevation  on  Grande-Terre  is  four 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  the  whole  section  con- 
sists mainly  of  limestone  and  a  conglomerate  of  sand 
and  broken  shells  which  contains  vegetable  and 
animal  remains,  including  occasional  Carib  skele- 
tons, too  recent  to  be  called  fossils.  This  peculiar 
conglomerate  is  much  used  as  a  building  stone,  and 
is  known  as  "  magonne  de  bon  dieu."  The  bay  be- 
tween the  sections  of  Guadeloupe  on  the  north  is 
called  the  Grand  Cul-de-Sac  Marin,  and  that  on  the 
south  the  Petit  Cul-de-Sac  Marin ;  and  the  narrow 
passage  between,  which  is  about  five  miles  long,  is 
the  Riviere  Sal^e,  or  "  Salt  River. "  Vessels  drawing 
seven  or  eight  feet  of  water  can  pass  through  it,  but 
it  could  be  readily  improved  into  a  serviceable  chan- 


GUADELOUPE  321 

nel.  Near  its  southern  entrance,  on  the  Grande- 
Terre  side,  is  Pointe-a-Pitre,  the  chief  port  and  the 
real  commercial  centre  of  Guadeloupe.  It  is  access- 
ible by  deep  water  from  the  sea,  and  has  the  ap- 
pliances of  a  genuine  seaport.  It  contains  great 
sugar-reducing  works,  the  Usines  Centrales,  to 
which  the  planters  bring  their  cane  and  sell  it,  in- 
stead of  undertaking  to  make  sugar  as  well  as  grow 
the  raw  material  themselves. 

The  capital  and  political  centre  is  Basse-Terre  on 
the  south-west  coast,  and  upon  the  heights  of  St. 
Claude  is  Camp  Jacob,  a  health  resort  and  place  of 
summer  residence,  where  the  governor  spends  much 
of  his  time.  On  the  eastern  coast  is  Le  Moule, 
whence  considerable  shipments  of  sugar  are  made, 
though  it  is  an  exposed  roadstead.  In  the  south- 
east is  a  place  called  Porte  d'Enfer. 

Basse-Terre  is  about  twenty-eight  miles  long  by 
twelve  to  fifteen  wide,  while  Grande-Terre,  with 
less  area,  extends  thirty-four  miles  from  north- 
west to  south-east,  and  twenty-two  from  north  to 
south,  being  of  irregular  shape  with  a  long  pen- 
insula at  the  south-eastern  extremity.  The  six 
hundred  and  more  square  miles  credited  to  Guade- 
loupe include  some  outlying  small  islands  to  the 
east  and  south.  While  Columbus  was  coming  from 
the  east  near  the  beginning  of  November,  1493, 
eager  for  the  sight  of  land,  the  first  discovered  was 
called  La  Deseada,  or  the  "  Wished-for,"  which 
has  been  corrupted  by  the  French  to  D^sirade. 
This  is  of  the  same  formation  as  Grande-Terre,  but 
is  higher,  though  containing  only  about  ten  square 


322  THE    WEST  INDIES 

miles  of  area.  An  island  of  sixty-five  square  miles 
nearly  south  of  Grande-Terre  and  east  of  the  lower 
point  of  Basse-Terre  was  named  Marie  Galante  for 
the  vessel  commanded  by  Columbus.  It  rises  in  a 
succession  of  terraces  to  an  elevation  of  six  hundred 
and  seventy-five  feet  on  the  eastern  side,  and  has  a 
circuit  of  fifty  miles.  It  has  a  poorly  sheltered  har- 
bour called  Grand  Bourg.  A  little  farther  west  a 
cluster  of  islets,  made  from  broken  craters  and  lava 
heaps,  were  called  Los  Santos,  "  The  Saints,"  be- 
cause first  seen  on  All-Hallows.  The  highest  is 
named  Le  Chameau,  and  rises  to  looo  feet  or  more, 
with  fortifications  on  the  top.  In  fact,"  The  Saints  " 
have  been  converted  into  a  military  and  naval  station 
and  armed  for  the  defence  of  the  colony,  and  they 
have  "  in  their  midst  "  a  deep  basin  specially  adapted 
for  the  safety  of  naval  vessels.     This  has  been  called 

the  Gibraltar  of  the  Antilles." 

Columbus  kept  on  his  way  up  the  eastern  side  of 
the  large  double  island,  which  the  natives  called 
Curucueria,  and  made  a  landing.  He  named  it 
Guadalupe,  in  honour  of  Santa  Maria  de  Guada- 
lupe in  Estramadura,  and  here  he  made  his  first 
acquaintance  with  the  fierce  Caribs.  He  was  de- 
lighted with  the  land,  but  reported  its  people  to  be 
bloodthirsty  pagans  and  cannibals.  The  warriors 
being  mostly  absent  on  some  expedition,  he  rescued 
some  female  captives  from  the  north,  took  a  Carib 
or  two  along,  and  went  his  way.  The  Spaniards 
seemed  to  pay  no  more  attention  to  this  particular 
island,  and  in  1635  two  French  adventurers,  named 
L'Olive    and    Duplessis,    tried  to  take    possession. 


GUADELOUPE  323 

They  had  to  give  it  up,  but  the  French  claim  to  the 
island  began  then  and  was  maintained  ever  after. 
After  a  long  struggle  the  Caribs  were  overcome, 
being  partly  slaughtered  and  partly  transported  to 
Dominica  and  St.  Vincent.  Slavery  was  introduced 
and  sugar  plantations  grew  up,  while  coffee  came  in 
somewhat  later. 

The  English  made  several  attacks  on  the  island 
during  the  wars,  and  in  1759  it  was  captured  by 
Admiral  Moore  and  General  Barrington,  but  was 
restored  by  the  treaty  of  1763.  It  was  one  of  the 
French  possessions  that  fell  into  British  hands  with 
Rodney's  victory  in  1782,  but  again  it  was  re- 
stored by  the  treaty  of  1783.  In  1794,  the  English, 
under  Sir  John  Grey  and  John  Jervis,  took  it, 
but  the  commissioner  of  the  new  French  republic, 
Victor  Hugues,  declared  the  emancipation  of  slaves 
and  turned  the  negroes  against  the  invaders  and 
drove  them  out.  In  1802,  Napoleon  re-established 
slavery,  which  caused  a  bloody  insurrection.  The 
blacks  fought  desperately,  and  many  killed  them- 
selves rather  than  submit.  Others  were  ruthlessly 
slaughtered,  and  many  were  transported.  During 
the  "  Hundred  Days  "  in  18 10,  the  English  got 
possession  once  more,  and  held  the  island  until  after 
the  peace  of  18 14,  but  since  then  the  French  con- 
trol has  been  uninterrupted.  Slavery  was  abolished 
in  1848,  but  was  followed  by  a  system  of  long-con- 
tract service.  Latterly  many  of  the  blacks  have 
become  small  landowners.  La  Soufriere  has  con- 
tributed one  or  two  exciting  incidents  to  the  history 
of  the  island.     As  lately  as  1797  it  had  an  alarming 


324  THE    WEST  INDIES 

eruption  which  seriously  disfigured  the  landscape, 
and  in  1843  it  went  into  convulsions  which  shook 
the  whole  island  and  did  considerable  damage, almost 
destroying  the  city  of  Pointe-k-Pitre. 

The  latest  authentic  statistics  of  the  population 
of  Guadeloupe  as  a  colony  place  it  at  135,650,  in- 
cluding 13,850  for  Marie  Galante,  and  1400  for 
D^sirade.  About  three  fourths  of  the  people  are 
classed  as  "  blacks,"  and  there  are  all  shades  of 
colour,  though  the  white  element  has  never  been 
sufficiently  large  to  reduce  the  African  predomi- 
nance noticeably.  The  aspect  of  life  in  the  towns 
is  extremely  picturesque,  with  light  costumes  and 
turbans  of  gay  colours,  and  a  cheerful  appearance 
of  thrift  and  comfort.  While  the  foreign  trade  is 
chiefly  in  sugar  and  coffee,  the  local  traffic  in  fish, 
vegetables,  and  fruits,  mostly  carried  on  by  women, 
gives  life  and  colour  to  the  market-places.  At  first 
Guadeloupe  was  attached  to  the  colony  of  Mar- 
tinique, but  it  has  had  a  separate  administration 
since  1775,  and  in  1837  the  French  municipal  system 
was  introduced.  It  is  a  department  represented  by 
one  senator  and  two  deputies  in  the  French  Corps 
Legislatif,  and  is  divided  into  three  arrondissements: 
Basse-Terre,  Pointe-k-Pitre,  and  Marie  Galante. 
There  is  a  governor  and  council  appointed  by  the 
home  authorities,  and  a  general  council  of  thirty-six 
members  elected  from  the  communes  to  represent 
local  interests  and  sentiment.  The  annual  revenues 
of  the  colony  amount  to  about  $1,000,000.  The 
aggregate  of  foreign  trade  is  about  45,000,000  francs 
or  $9,000,000  per  year,  divided  almost  equally  be- 
tween imports  and  exports. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 


DOMINICA 


THE  culminating  height  of  the  volcanic  ridge 
whose  peaks  constitute  the  main  line  of  the 
Caribbees  is  Mount  Diablotin,  5340  feet  high,  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  island  of  Dominica.  That 
central  island  of  the  range  is  about  twenty-five  miles 
south  of  Guadeloupe  and  a  little  more  than  that 
north  of  Martinique.  Its  entire  length  from  north 
to  south  is  twenty-nine  miles,  and  its  width  from 
twelve  to  sixteen,  the  greatest  length  being  on  the 
west  side.  A  large  part  of  its  area  is  covered  with 
mountains,  which  are  clothed  with  dense  forests  and 
tropical  vegetation  of  rank  luxuriance;  its  shores 
are  rocky  and  precipitous,  with  few  indentations 
that  can  be  used  as  landing-places.  The  only  avail- 
able anchorages  are  on  the  west  side  at  Prince 
Rupert's  Bay  in  the  north,  where  the  town  of  Ports- 
mouth is  situated,  and  at  Roseau,  the  capital, 
farther  south,  where  there  is  a  practicable  "  caren- 
age. "  The  mountains  are  cleft  with  wild  gorges 
and  ravines,  and  there  are  many  streams,  which 
often  fall  in  beautiful  cascades  over  the  precipices, 

325 


326  THE    WEST  INDIES 

or  slip  through  deep  dells  covered  with  flowering 
vines  and  shrubs.  There  is  valuable  timber  in  the 
primeval  woods,  but  little  use  is  made  of  it.  There 
are  ancient  craters  among  the  mountains,  and  fre- 
quent sulphur  cavities  and  boiling  springs.  One 
old  chasm  used  to  be  known  as  the  boiling  lake, 
and  was  said  to  be  three  hundred  feet  deep,  but  a 
few  years  ago  a  landslide  partly  filled  it  up,  spoiled 
the  symmetry  of  its  banks,  and  stopped  its  ebul- 
litions. 

A  comparatively  small  part  of  the  island's  area  of 
two  hundred  and  ninety  square  miles  is  subject  to 
cultivation,  and  much  of  that  is  stony,  but  the  soil 
is  very  rich  and  produces  all  tropical  plants  and 
fruits  in  great  abundance.  The  palms  and  fruit 
trees,  the  shrubs  and  flowering  plants,  so  common 
in  all  these  islands,  flourish  in  Dominica,  and  it  has 
several  varieties  peculiar  to  itself.  The  ceiba  tree, 
though  not  its  exclusive  possession,  is  specially  con- 
spicuous, with  its  trailing  parasites  and  profusion  of 
orchids ;  and  tree  ferns  grow  to  a  height  of  twenty 
or  thirty  feet.  There  are  few  quadrupeds,  but  in 
the  woods  a  great  variety  of  birds  with  bright  plumes 
and  musical  notes  are  found.  Wild  bees  swarm  in 
the  blooming  wildernesses  and  store  honey  in  the 
clefts  of  trees,  which  is  stolen  from  them  and  sent 
into  the  markets  of  the  world.  Honey  and  wax  are 
among  the  chief  exports,  though  sugar  and  coffee 
are  still  sent  abroad. 

In  the  old  days  the  Dominican  planters  did  not 
find  their  land  so  well  adapted  to  sugar-cane  as  to 
coffee,   and    this  was   never  one  of  the   islands  in 


DOMINICA  327 

A^hich  great  plantations  flourished.  Since  the  aboH- 
tion  of  slavery,  it  has  been  slow  to  adapt  itself  to 
new  conditions,  and  has  not  been  prosperous.  Its 
climate  on  the  west  coast,  which  is  alone  accessible 
to  commerce,  is  moist  and  hot,  and  of  its  30,000  in- 
habitants few  are  white  Europeans.  There  has  been 
some  cultivation  of  cacao  and  arrowroot,  and  of 
lemons  and  limes,  and  less  reliance  on  the  old 
"  colonial  produce,"  but  labour  conditions  are  not 
favourable,  and  there  is  less  evidence  of  thrift  and 
cheerful  content  than  in  the  French  islands,  though 
the  language  and  traditions  here  are  French  rather 
than  English.  Roseau,  or  Charlotte  Town,  is  a  neat 
and  quiet  place  of  5000  people,  but  has  an  air  of 
having  seen  better  days.  It  has  an  old  French 
cathedral,  an  English  church,  and  a  Wesleyan 
chapel,  and  there  is  a  botanical  garden  and  a  public 
library.  At  Portsmouth,  or  Prince  Rupert's,  up  by 
the  foot  of  Mount  Diablotin,  there  is  a  better  har- 
bour and  more  encouragement  for  foreign  commerce, 
of  which  the  island  has  comparatively  little,  though 
capable  of  producing  many  things  for  which  there  is 
a  steady  demand. 

After  passing  La  Deseada,  Marie  Galante,  and  The 
Saints,  Columbus  bore  down  toward  the  verdant  land 
that  seemed  to  rise  out  of  the  water  to  the  south, 
but,  finding  a  rock-bound  coast  and  no  good  landing- 
place,  he  turned  back.  As  it  was  Sunday,  he  called 
that  rugged  island  Dominica,  and  proceeded  to 
Guadeloupe.  The  Carib  possessors  were  left  in 
peace  until  1627,  when  a  few  Englishmen,  presum- 
ing on  that  lavish  gift  of  King  Charles  to  the  Earl 


328  THE    WEST  INDIES 

of  Carlisle,  tried  to  take  possession.  They  were 
vigorously  repelled,  and  after  the  French  had  begun 
to  settle  the  neighbouring  islands,  they  too  made 
some  unsuccessful  ventures  upon  this.  By  the 
treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748,  Great  Britain  and 
France  agreed  to  leave  this  island  to  the  Caribs  as  a 
sort  of  neutral  ground,  but,  as  it  was  convenient  to 
the  French  from  Guadeloupe  and  Martinique,  they 
persisted  in  making  encroachments  upon  it,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  war  of  1 756-1 763  the  English 
captured  it  as  part  of  the  enemy's  territory. 

At  the  end  of  the  war  Great  Britain  was  confirmed 
in  possession,  and  appointed  a  commission  to  dispose 
of  land  to  colonists,  permitting  the  French  settlers 
to  remain  on  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance  and  paying 
a  moderate  quit-rent.  In  1778,  the  French  from 
Martinique  attacked  the  island,  and  with  the  help 
of  these  same  settlers  forced  it  to  capitulate,  but  it 
was  recovered  by  Rodney,  and  the  title  was  again 
conceded  by  the  treaty  of  1783.  In  1805,  General 
La  Grange  attacked  Roseau  and  compelled  a  sur- 
render of  the  town,  which  was  burned  ;  but  the  gov- 
ernor, Sir  George  Prevost,  succeeded  in  defending 
the  island,  and  the  Frenchmen  gave  up  the  attempt 
to  hold  it.  In  18 13-14,  there  was  a  raid  of  fugitive 
blacks  from  the  mountains,  and  Governor  Ainslie 
adopted  a  policy  of  extermination  for  the  fugitives, 
killing  everyone  caught  and  offering  a  reward  for 
everyone  hunted  down  and  slain.  He  was  recalled 
to  explain  his  inhuman  conduct,  but  he  carried 
home  a  testimonial  to  his  clemency  and  humanity, 
signed  by  one  hundred  and  sixty  citizens  of  Roseau, 


DOMINICA 


329 


with  the  rector  of  the  English  church  at  the  head  of 
the  Hst.  There  is  still  a  remnant  of  Caribs  much 
adulterated  with  negro  blood  within  the  confines  of 
a  reservation  on  the  eastern  side  of  Dominica. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 


MARTINIQUE 


PERHAPS  the  most  interesting  island  in  the 
most  attractive  archipelago  of  all  this  world  is 
that  in  which  the  French  ardour  of  soul  is  com- 
mingled in  the  highest  degree  with  the  native  blood 
of  the  tropics.  Martinique  is  about  thirty  miles  due 
south  across  the  blue  Caribbean  waters  from  Domin- 
ica. Columbus  made  its  discovery  on  his  last  voyage 
in  1502,  but  if  he  tried  to  fix  a  saint's  name  upon  it, 
it  did  not  stick.  The  native  Caribs  called  it  Ma- 
diana,  or,  some  say,  Matinina,  and,  whichever  it 
was,  the  present  name  is  a  French  corruption  of  it. 
The  English  navigators  used  to  call  it  Martinico. 

The  island  has  the  same  general  characteristics  as 
its  nearest  neighbours,  with  some  peculiarities  of  its 
own.  Its  extreme  length  is  about  forty-five  miles 
from  north-west  to  south-east,  and  the  main  part  of 
it  is  in  shape  an  oval  with  rough  edges,  its  greatest 
width  being  fifteen  miles.  At  the  lower  end  of  this 
main  part,  the  old  Fort  Royal  Bay  —  since  the 
French  Revolution  Fort  de  France  Bay — cuts  in  so 
deep  as  to  come  within  six  miles  of  meeting  the  in- 

330 


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MA  J?  TINIQ  UE         .  331 

lets  of  Le  Robert  and  Le  Francois  on  the  other  side. 
Below  this  huge  gash,  which  is  thickly  plastered 
with  mangrove  swamps,  is  another  expanse  of 
mountainous  territory  to  the  south  terminating  in 
the  Morne  du  Diamant.  The  whole  area  of  near 
four  hundred  square  miles  is  mountainous,  the  lofti- 
est height  being  Mount  Pel6e,  4450  feet,  in  the 
north-west,  near  the  foot  of  whose  western  slope  on 
the  coast  is  the  bay  upon  which  St.  Pierre  is  built. 
Farther  south,  midway  of  the  oval,  are  the  three 
crests  of  Courbet,  and  all  along  the  mighty  ridge  are 
black  and  ragged  cones  of  old  volcanoes.  These 
slumbering  monsters  cannot  yet  be  reckoned  as 
absolutely  harmless,  for  in  185 1,  after  a  century  of 
seeming  quietude,  Mount  Pelee  broke  out  with  a 
dangerous  eruption. 

In  the  section  south  of  the  deep  bay  there  are 
two  less  elevated  and  more  irregular  ridges,  one 
running  south-east  and  terminating  in  the  Piton 
Vauclin,  and  the  other  extending  westward  and 
presenting  to  view  on  the  coast  Mounts  Caraibe 
and  Constant.  All  the  east  coast  is  notched  with 
inlets  and  fringed  with  reefs,  showing  how  the  em- 
broidery of  the  tireless  polyp  still  goes  on.  The 
mountainous  interior  is  torn  and  gashed  with  the 
ancient  throes  of  volcano  and  earthquake,  and  there 
are  perpendicular  scarps,  deep  clefts  and  gorges, 
black  holes  filled  with  water,  and  swift  torrents 
dashing  over  precipices  and  falling  into  caverns; 
but  over  all  this  ravage  of  the  primal  ages  the  soak- 
ing rains  and  fervid  sun  of  the  tropic  zone  have 
wrought  upon  the  rich  lava  soil  a  robe  of  verdure 


332  THE    WEST  INDIES 

and  of  bloom  which  covers  the  ghastly  disfigurement 
with  surpassing  beauty. 

To  name  the  trees  and  plants  of  Martinique  and 
to  speak  of  the  animal  life  of  its  woods  and  waters 
is  hardly  more  than  repetition  of  what  has  been  said 
of  Guadeloupe  and  Dominica.  It  has  its  great  ceiba 
trees  with  their  hanging  vines  and  orchids,  the 
graceful  columns  of  the  palm  with  tufted  crown  or 
spreading  umbrella-like  shade,  the  lithe  bamboo,  the 
round,  dark  top  of  the  breadfruit  tree,  the  orange 
groves,  the  waving  cane  fields — 

"  The  glows 
And  glories  of  the  broad  belt  of  the  world." 

In  these  woods  and  glens  and  on  these  rocky 
shores  the  fierce  Carib  was  allowed  to  remain  undis- 
turbed until  that  adventurous  Norman  captain, 
Esnambuc,  came  down  from  St.  Christopher  in 
1635  and  founded  St.  Pierre  at  the  very  foot  of  the 
frowning  peak  of  Pel^e.  It  was  a  long  struggle 
with  the  resisting  natives,  but  forty  years  later 
France  took  up  the  colony  and  turned  it  over  to  a 
chartered  company  as  part  of  the  royal  domain. 
The  Caribs  were  killed,  driven  off,  or  transported, 
the  hapless  negro  and  the  sugar-cane  were  brought 
in.  Coffee  was  introduced  here  first  of  all  in  1726, 
and  the  plantation  system,  that  made  a  few  families 
rich  from  the  blood  and  sweat  of  thousands,  was 
established.  Martinique  shared  in  the  vicissitudes 
of  the  old  contests  of  France  and  England  against 
Spain  and  with  each  other,  and  saw  some  stirring 
incidents  in  West  Indian  history. 


MARTINIQUE  333 

In  that  Titanic  struggle  for  possession,  while 
Great  Britain  was  engaged  in  the  futile  effort  to 
put  down  her  American  colonies  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  it  was  in  Fort  de  France  Bay  that  the  Count 
de  Grasse  gathered  his  formidable  fleet  which  was 
to  join  with  the  Spaniards  off  Hispaniola,  capture 
Jamaica,  and  drive  the  English  out  of  West  Indian 
waters.  It  was  behind  the  rock  of  Gros  Islet  on 
the  north  coast  of  St.  Lucia,  only  thirty  miles  to 
the  south,  that  Rodney  lurked  with  the  Formidable 
and  the  other  British  men-of-war,  waiting  for  the 
enemy  to  come  out  into  the  open,  watching  day 
by  day  upon  the  height,  spy-glass  in  hand,  for  the 
signal  that  De  Grasse  had  ventured  forth.  It  was 
April  8,  1782,  that  the  welcome  word  came,  and 
on  the  9th  Rodney  was  on  the  track  of  the  French 
admiral.  Three  days  the  bafifling  calms  and  un- 
certain winds  delayed  the  fight,  but  on  the  12th, 
off  Dominica,  the  two  great  powers  were  face  to 
face,  with  the  chief  glory  of  their  navies  in  fierce 
combat  for  possession  of  the  islands,  all  but  one  of 
which  had  been  torn  from  Great  Britain  in  Rod- 
ney's absence.  That  day  not  only  saved  the  British 
West  Indies  from  France  and  Spain,  but  had  much 
to  do  with  the  terms  of  peace  in  1783. 

A  mile  or  so  south  of  Morne  du  Diamant,  a  great 
volcanic  rock  springs  from  the  sea  to  the  height  of 
six  hundred  feet,  with  shaggy  sides  and  a  flat  crest. 
Its  top  is  almost  inaccessible,  but  can  be  reached  by 
perilous  clambering  and  clinging  to  crags  and  vines. 
In  1805,  in  the  Napoleonic  times.  Sir  Samuel  Hood, 
vexed    that   the   French  ships  passed  through  the 


334  THE    WEST  INDIES     ■ 

narrow  channel  between  this  rock  and  the  shore  and 
thereby  eluded  him,  hoisted  men  and  guns  and  pro- 
visions for  four  months  to  the  top  of  the  volcanic 
cone, — one  hundred  and  twenty  men  and  five  cannon 
with  ammunition, — and  they  peppered  any  warlike 
Frenchmen  that  came  past.  It  was  only  a  question 
of  time  when  they  would  be  forced  to  give  it  up  for 
lack  of  ammunition  and  food,  if  hostilities  continued  ; 
and  in  June,  1805,  they  finally  surrendered  after  a 
five  months'  resistance,  but  "  Her  Majesty's  sloop 
of  war  Diamond  Rock''  became  famous  by  that 
daring  exploit. 

Martinique,  as  the  centre  of  French  life  and  activ- 
ity in  the  West  Indies,  was  much  perturbed  by  the 
French  Revolution;  and  the  freeing  of  slaves  in 
Haiti  caused  a  tension  hard  to  control.  There  was 
no  actual  outbreak  until  183 1,  when  a  serious  insur- 
rection of  slaves  occurred.  It  was  not  repressed 
with  the  British  harshness,  but  3000  of  the  discon- 
tented were  manumitted  and  all  free  persons  of 
colour  were  vested  with  the  political  rights  of 
Frenchmen.  After  emancipation  in  1848,  there  was 
a  contract-labour  system,  and  East  Indian  coolies 
were  imported  when  the  negroes  showed  a  preference 
for  working  on  patches  of  land  of  their  own  and  left 
the  planters  short  of  labour.  That  system  has  been 
abolished,  and  more  and  more  small  holdings  pre- 
vail, and  plantations  disintegrate  into  farms.  Long 
time  sugar  was  the  one  great  staple,  coffee  having 
much  declined,  and  cotton  receiving  little  attention. 
Sugar,  molasses,  tafia,  and  rum  were  the  chief  ex- 
ports, but  there  is  less  profit  in  these  products  of 


Copyrighted  by  J.  Murray  Jordan,  189S. 
STATUE   OF   THE   EMPRESS   JOSEPHINE,  FORT-DE-FRANCE,  MARTINIQUE. 


MA  R  TINIQ  UE  335 

cane  nowadays,  and  there  is  an  increase  in  tobacco, 
cacao,  indigo,  ginger,  fruits,  and  other  things  which 
might  as  well  be  raised.  The  exports  in  recent 
years  have  averaged  about  $4,500,000  in  annual 
value  and  the  imports  $5,500,000. 

The  population  of  Martinique  is  reckoned  at  about 
175,000,  of  whom  10,000  are  whites,  15,000  of  Asia- 
tic origin,  and  150,000  black,  or  coloured  in  various 
shades.  It  is  not  an  idle  or  thriftless  population, 
but  lively  and  generally  in  comfortable  case.  It  is 
rather  careless  of  the  marriage  relation  and  of  the 
conventionalities  of  civilised  society,  and  two  thirds 
of  the  births  are  said  to  be  illegitimate.  The  strain 
of  French  seems  to  give  a  peculiar  gayety  and  a 
charm  of  sensuous  beauty  to  the  variegated  popu- 
lace, which  is  fond  of  bright  colours  and  gaudy 
ornaments  in  their  light  attire,  and  of  frolicsome 
diversions  mingled  with  a  formal  observance  of  the 
rites  of  the  Romish  Church.  In  the  streets  and 
market-places  it  makes  a  fascinating  crowd,  and  in 
the  highways  and  byways  it  exerts  an  idyllic  charm 
on  the  beholder. 

Fort  de  France  on  the  north  side  of  the  deep  inlet 
is  the  capital  and  fortified  place  of  the  island,  the 
centre  of  military  and  naval  activity,  the  point  of 
departure  for  transatlantic  steamers,  and  of  connec- 
tion with  all  the  world  by  submarine  telegraph.  It 
is  built  on  a  flat  shore,  with  the  mangroves  stretch- 
ing away  inland  and  ranks  of  tall  palms  shading  its 
well  kept  streets.  It  was  awfully  shaken  by  earth- 
quake in  1839,  ^"d  almost  destroyed  by  fire  in  1890, 
Not  far  away  on  the  same  bay  is  Lamentin,  farther 


336  THE    WEST  INDIES 

around  St.  Esprit,  and  on  the  southern  side  Dia- 
mant  and  Marin.  The  chief  towns  of  the  east  coast 
are  Le  Francois,  Le  Robert,  and  Trinite,  and  Ma- 
couba  is  on  the  north.  But  the  oldest,  most  popu- 
lous, picturesque,  and  flourishing  place  of  all  is  St. 
Pierre  in  the  north-west.  It  is  also  the  chief  seat  of 
the  island's  trade.  There  is  a  lower  and  an  upper 
town,  and  from  the  bay  it  seems  to  rise  in  terraces 
of  yellow  houses  with  red  roofs  embowered  in  gar- 
dens and  groves.  The  streets  within  the  city  are 
mostly  narrow,  steep,  and  well  paved,  and  are 
periodically  washed  down  by  the  rains.  The  slop- 
ing country  around  is  productive  of  anything  trop- 
ical to  which  attention  may  be  given,  and  rises  to 
verdant  heights  far  above  the  sea-level,  cultivated 
to  the  top. 

Like  Guadeloupe,  Martinique  is  a  department  of 
France,  with  one  senator  and  two  deputies  to  repre- 
sent it.  It  is  divided  into  the  two  arrondissements  of 
St.  Pierre  and  Fort  de  France,  and  into  twenty-five 
communes.  A  governor  and  council  are  appointed 
by  the  home  government,  and  there  is  a  general 
council  of  thirty-six  elected  members. 

We  must  not  overlook  the  interesting  fact  that 
Martinique  was  the  birthplace  of  the  Empress 
Josephine.  A  marble  statue  gazing  out  to  sea  from 
the  palm-shaded  savanna  of  Fort  de  France  is  a 
constant  reminder  of  that  fact.  Those  decayed 
scions  of  French  gentility,  the  Taschers  de  la  Page- 
rie,  came  out  here  early  in  the  last  century,  and 
Joseph  Gaspard  de  Tascher  de  la  Pagerie  was  an 
artillery  officer  in  the  time  of  the  Seven  Years'  War 


MARTINIQUE  337 

of  1756-1763;  and  it  was  in  June  of  the  last  year 
that  his  daughter,  Marie-Joseph-Rose,  was  born  at 
the  petit  bourg  of  Trois  Islets,  across  the  bay  from 
Fort  de  France.  At  sixteen  she  went  to  France  to 
marry  the  son  of  the  governor  of  Martinique,  Mar- 
quis de  Beauharnais,  but  after  that  unhappy  union 
was  dissolved  returned  to  her  tropical  home  to 
emerge  again  in  her  maturer  years  and  captivate  the 
great  Napoleon  amid  the  gayeties  of  Paris.  That 
prouder  union  was  destined  to  a  still  unhappier  dis- 
solution. Madame  de  Maintenon  was  also  born  in 
Martinique  and  passed  her  girlhood  there  as  Fran- 
^oise  d'Aubign^.  History  and  romance  unite  with 
lavish  nature  and  a  peculiar  people  to  give  this 
island  a  fascination  all  its  own. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

ST.    LUCIA   AND    ST.    VINCENT 

TWENTY  miles  across  the  clear  water  south  of 
Martinique  lies  St.  Lucia.  At  its  northern 
end  stands  that  Gros  Islet,  or  Pigeon  Rock,  as  the 
English  call  it  in  their  prosy  manner,  from  which 
Rodney  watched  for  the  signal  that  De  Grasse  had 
issued  from  Fort  Royal  Bay,  as  it  then  was,  on  those 
memorable  days  after  Yorktown.  On  the  north-west 
shore  of  the  island  itself  is  the  harbour  of  Castries, 
many  a  time  the  headquarters  of  the  British  fleet  in 
these  waters,  with  a  magnificent  entrance  between 
two  headlands  and  an  amphitheatre  of  wooded 
mountains  at  the  back.  The  island  is  nearly  oval  in 
form,  with  its  axis  pointing  east  of  south,  and  its 
greatest  length  is  forty-two  miles  and  its  width 
twenty-one.  The  area  is  two  hundred  and  forty- 
two  square  miles.  It  is  almost  filled  with  wooded 
mountains  running  in  a  jagged  ridge  through  its 
length,  and  rising  in  a  succession  of  volcanic  cones 
with  fantastic  variations  of  form.  The  highest  ele- 
vation is  over  4000  feet,  but  the  shaggy  covering  of 
forest,  with  its  varying  hues,  goes  to  the  very  top, 

338 


ST.   LUCIA    A  AW   ST.    VINCENT  339 

save  where  the  blackened  and  broken  lips  of  craters 
appear,  over  which  clouds  almost  always  hover. 

As  one  sails  down  the  leeward  coast,  two  sharp 
peaks  appear  to  the  south  above  the  verdant  ridges, 
like  a  donkey's  ears,  as  the  vulgar  seamen  put  it. 
These  are  "  The  Pitons  "  at  the  south  end  of  the 
island.  All  sharp  peaks  are  pitons  in  the  lingo  of 
the  French,  but  these  are  "  The  Pitons."  Viewed 
from  the  south  they  rise  sheer  out  of  the  sea  at  the 
island's  verge,  one  2680  and  the  other  2710  feet,  like 
misshapen  towers  of  some  vast  submerged  cathedral, 
whose  roof  is  the  mountainous  back  of  the  island  be- 
hind. Between  them  a  quiet  bay  charms  the  eye 
with  its  verdant  background,  over  which  looms  in 
the  distance  the  sombre  form  of  the  great  Soufri^re, 
or  Solfatara.  This  huge  crater  is  not  altogether 
without  life,  though  its  inexhaustible  sulphur  de- 
posits are  accessible  to  man.  Within  its  gloomy 
depths  the  lava  boils  and  bubbles,  acting  in  its  state 
of  fusion,  perhaps,  as  a  safety-valve  for  imprisoned 
forces;  and  at  many  a  spot  among  the  mountains 
sulphurous  vapours  issue  and  thermal  waters  gush 
out. 

As  elsewhere  in  this  marvellous  range  of  tropic 
islands,  the  mountains  are  cleft  by  wild  gorges  and 
picturesque  valleys,  and  on  the  slopes  the  soil, 
made  from  ancient  lava  and  decomposed  vegetation, 
is  exceedingly  rich.  Here  are  all  the  trees  and  vines 
and  flowering  plants  and  the  profuse  variety  of  fruits 
that  we  have  found  in  the  other  islands,  but  four 
fifths  of  all  the  surface  is  still  covered  with  unbroken 
forest.     Here,  too,  are  the  birds  and  tiny  beasts, 


34©  THE    WEST  INDIES 

the  reptiles  and  the  insects  common  to  the  Carib- 
bees,  but  St.  Lucia  is  the  special  home  of  that 
hideous  and  deadly  serpent,  the  "  fer-de-lance," 
or  spear-head.  He  also  infests  Martinique,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  found  in  Guadeloupe  and  St. 
Vincent  and  on  Bequia  at  the  northern  verge  of 
the  Grenadines.  As  his  original  home  is  Guiana, 
and  he  is  never  seen  in  the  islands  beyond  the  limits 
mentioned,  his  presence  is  a  standing  puzzle  to  the 
scientists.  He  is  sometimes  called  the  rat-tailed 
snake,  and  his  make-up  is  peculiarly  repulsive,  per- 
haps intensified  by  the  known  fact  that  he  needs  no 
provocation  to  strike,  and  the  stroke  of  his  venom- 
ous fangs  is  almost  instantly  fatal.  There  is  a  harm- 
less snake  of  his  own  size — sometimes  six  or  seven 
feet  long — called  the  cribo,  which  will  fight  and  kill 
the  fer-de-lance  and  eat  the  slaughtered  enemy  like 
a  cannibal  Carib. 

In  the  old  plantation  days  sugar  was  raised  on 
the  slopes  of  St.  Lucia,  and  to  some  extent  is  still 
raised ;  but  since  the  abolition  of  slavery  there  has 
been  languishing  and  decay,  as  in  so  many  other 
English  islands.  Of  the  45,000  inhabitants,  barely 
1000  are  whites,  and  the  planters'  families  have 
mostly  emigrated.  The  negroes  have  obtained 
small  allotments  of  land,  and  a  central  "  usine," 
or  sugar  factory,  has  been  established  with  gov- 
ernment aid,  and  there  are  still  some  exports  of 
sugar,  coffee,  and  cacao.  The  town  of  Castries, 
named  for  Marshal  de  Castries  at  the  time  of 
the  French  occupation,  capital  and  chief  city,  has 
5000  or  6000  people,  and  until  lately  seemed  to  be 


ST.   LUCIA    AND   ST.    VINCENT  34 1 

going  to  decay  in  spite  of  the  advantages  of  its 
location  and  its  splendid  harbour.  When  Lord 
Rodney  urged  the  retention  of  St.  Lucia  rather 
than  Martinique,  he  advised  making  a  great  naval 
station  here.  His  advice  was  not  followed,  but  in 
recent  years  the  harbour  has  been  dredged  and  lined 
with  wharves,  and  Castries  has  become  the  British 
coaling  station  in  the  Windward  Islands,  having 
telegraph  connection  with  all  the  world.  On  the 
heights  of  Morne  Fortunee,  seven  hundred  and 
seventy  feet  above  the  sea,  is  the  station  for  troops, 
and  Chabot  and  Chazeau  are  health  resorts.  In  the 
valleys,  especially  where  there  are  swamps  near  the 
mouths  of  the  many  streams,  the  climate  is  con- 
sidered unhealthy.  There  are  a  few  stone  houses  in 
the  town  of  Castries,  but  for  the  most  part  it  consists 
of  long  rows  of  small  dwellings  occupied  by  negroes. 
St.  Lucia  had  its  full  share  in  the  vicissitudes  of 
the  struggle  for  control  between  England  and  France 
in  this  part  of  the  Antilles.  It  is  set  down  among 
the  discoveries  of  Columbus  on  his  fourth  voyage  in 
1 502,  but  was  left  to  the  native  Caribs  for  more  than 
a  century  and  a  quarter.  It  was  included  in  the 
sweeping  grant  of  Charles  I.  to  the  Earl  of  Carlisle 
in  1627,  and  the  English  made  attempts  at  settle- 
ment, but  were  driven  off.  In  1642,  the  King  of 
France  undertook  to  sell  the  island  to  a  couple  of 
Frenchmen.  They  were  equally  unsuccessful  in 
their  attempts  to  establish  a  colony,  but  rival  claims 
were  thus  set  up  to  its  possession.  In  1664,  it  was 
attacked  by  an  English  force  from  Barbados,  but 
was  ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Breda.     In  all 


342  THE    WEST  INDIES 

the  subsequent  wars  it  was  fought  over,  taken,  and 
retaken,  and  in  the  intervals  was  sometimes  treated 
as  neutral  ground.  When  Rodney  came  out  in 
1782,  it  alone  remained  in  English  hands  among  the 
Lesser  Antilles.  It  was  French  again  after  1784, 
until  Sir  John  Moore  and  Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie 
recovered  it  by  crushing  the  combined  force  of  the 
French  and  negroes  in  1796,  for  the  French  gov- 
ernor had  freed  the  slaves  in  1794,  and  they  fought 
desperately  and  vainly  to  keep  their  freedom.  Sir 
John  Moore  was  governor  of  the  island  for  a  while, 
— he  of  Corunna  and  Wolfe's  famous  dirge.  The 
French  got  hold  of  St,  Lucia  again  in  1802,  but  it 
was  retaken  in  1803,  ^'^^  ^'^s  remained  an  English 
possession  from  that  time,  though  in  character  and 
tradition  more  French  than  English,  like  Dominica. 

St,  Lucia  is  in  the  track  of  the  hurricane,  and  has 
suffered  severely  from  its  visitations.  That  of  Sep- 
tember II,  1898,  was  less  destructive  here  than  in 
St.  Vincent  and  Barbados,  but  owing  to  the  steep 
slopes  of  the  island  the  heavy  rain  which  accom- 
panied the  furious  wind  caused  landslides  that  ruined 
many  plantations,  destroyed  crops,  and  buried  the 
habitations  of  the  people,  sometimes  with  their  oc- 
cupants. The  fact  that  most  of  the  cultivated  land 
and  of  the  population  is  on  the  western  side  of  the 
volcanic  ridge  saved  them  from  such  complete  de- 
struction as  was  wrought  where  the  tempest  had  a 
less  interrupted  sweep. 

St,  Vincent  is  the  smallest  of  the  range  of  volcanic 
islands,  being  about  seventeen  miles  long  and  ten 
wide,  of  a  generally  oval  form,  and  containing  one 


ST.    LUCIA   AND   ST.    VINCENT  343 

hundred  and  thirty-two  square  miles.  It  is  traversed 
lengthwise  by  a  range  of  volcanic  hills  intersected  by 
beautiful  valleys,  but  there  is  only  one  tall  cone, 
the  Morne  Garou,  5200  feet  in  altitude.  From  the 
dark  and  jagged  top,  upon  which  clouds  almost 
constantly  hang,  the  rich  lava  soil  slopes  to  the  sea, 
spreading  into  green  plantations  and  verdant  groves 
and  gardens  toward  the  coast.  The  great  Soufri^re, 
the  scene  of  the  terrible  eruption  of  1812,  is  in  the 
north-west,  flanking  the  main  peak  at  some  distance. 
The  volcanic  eruption  of  April  27,  1812,  is  indeed 
the  chief  event  in  the  history  of  St.  Vincent.  There 
are  inconsistent  accounts  of  a  somewhat  similar  oc- 
currence in  1718,  which  tore  the  mountain  to  pieces, 
and  there  was  some  volcanic  disturbance  in  the  vicin- 
ity in  1785.  But  at  the  beginning  of  this  century 
the  old  crater  was  quiescent  and  contained  in  its 
depths  what  has  often  been  described  as  a  "  beauti- 
ful blue  lake,"  though  nobody  could  get  more  than 
a  casual  glance  at  it  through  the  jungle  about  its 
rocky  walls.  For  a  year  or  two  before  the  eruption 
of  1 812,  the  earth  had  been  disturbed  by  internal 
convulsions  over  a  broad  region.  Expanding  gases 
under  tremendous  pressure  were  struggling  to  escape 
and  shook  the  islands  and  the  shores  all  around  the 
American  Mediterranean.  On  the  26th  of  March, 
they  seemed  to  gather  all  their  energies  under  the 
foundations  of  the  Venezuela  coast,  and,  with  a 
gigantic  effort  to  break  loose,  they  shattered  the 
city  of  Caracas  into  a  heap  of  ruins,  burying  10,000 
of  its  people  in  a  common  grave.  Still  roaring  and 
bellowing  in  the  subterranean  chambers,  they  sought 


344  "^HE    WEST  INDIES 

a  vent  where  the  resistance  would  be  least.  They 
found  it  in  a  month  in  the  old  Soufrifere  of  St.  Vin- 
cent, but  not  through  the  ancient  water-logged  crater. 

They  broke,  with  a  terrific  explosion,  through 
the  mountain  on  the  other  side  of  a  rocky  wall 
eight  hundred  feet  high,  and  hurled  into  the  heavens 
with  enormous  force  and  fury  a  cloud  of  stones 
and  dust  and  black  volumes  of  smoke  that  filled 
the  canopy  of  heaven  with  impenetrable  darkness 
for  three  days  and  spread  dread  and  gloom  over 
all  the  island.  At  the  end  of  that  period,  the  pro- 
\)nged  discharge  of  ash-laden  vapours  that  extin- 
guished the  sun  was  followed  by  a  gush  of  lava 
which  flowed  down  to  the  sea,  and  the  agony  of  the 
earth  was  over.  The  terrible  rumblings  and  explo- 
sions in  the  bowels  of  the  globe,  as  the  imprisoned 
forces  rushed  to  the  new-found  vent,  were  heard  with 
terror  in  Venezuela  and  Barbados,  but  were  accom- 
panied by  no  surface  shocks.  At  Barbados  the 
English  soldiers  took  it  for  the  cannonading  of  ships 
at  sea  and  prepared  for  an  attack;  and  then  came 
the  strangest  part  of  the  phenomenon. 

This  island  is  one  hundred  miles  east  of  St.  Vin- 
cent, while  the  trade-winds  blow  steadily  toward  the 
jouth-west ;  but  over  Barbados  gathered  a  black  pall 
that  shrouded  it  in  Egyptian  darkness,  and  an  im- 
palpable black  dust  began  to  fall  like  a  snow  of  pul- 
verised jet.  It  covered  the  island  inches  deep,  with 
ultimate  fertilising  effect,  and  after  the  fright  was 
over,  it  was  found  to  be  the  dust  of  that  terrible 
commotion  in  the  Soufrifere  of  St.  Vincent,  fanned 
a  hundred  miles  over  sea  by  the  returning  currents 


ST.   LUCIA   AND   ST.   VINCENT  345 

above  the  trade-winds.  It  must  have  been  hurled 
some  16,000  feet  into  the  air.  This  eruption  so  re- 
lieved the  agonies  of  the  earth  that  the  burnt-out 
cones  of  the  Caribbees  have  been  quiescent  since, 
save  for  inward  boiling,  though  occasionally  the  im- 
prisoned gases,  under  the  pressure  of  sinking  strata 
of  the  earth's  crust,  swell  and  rumble  through  the 
deeper  galleries  and  make  the  surface  quake  and 
tremble. 

St.  Vincent  was  the  chief  victim  of  the  terrible 
hurricane  which  swept  from  Barbados  across  the 
"Windward  Islands"  on  the  nth  of  September, 
1898.  It  seems  to  have  been  in  the  line  of  its  in- 
tensest  fury,  and  Kingstown  and  nearly  the  whole 
area  of  cultivated  land  were  torn  by  its  blasts  and 
lashed  by  the  torrents  which  they  carried.  The 
city  was  almost  destroyed,  many  of  its  inhabitants 
were  crushed  to  death,  and  according  to  the  early 
reports  three  fourths  of  the  population  of  the  whole 
island  were  made  homeless  and  destitute.  The 
wind  stripped  the  foliage  from  the  trees,  leaving 
those  which  still  stood  like  bare  poles;  and  with  the 
driving  rain  it  shaved  the  vegetation  from  the  face 
of  the  ground  and  scattered  the  flimsy  cabins  of  the 
negroes  like  chaff.  Even  the  animal  life  is  said  to 
have  been  silenced,  and  in  the  grey  desolation  which 
suddenly  took  the  place  of  tropical  exuberance  there 
was  neither  sound  of  bird  or  insect  nor  sight  of  rep- 
tile for  many  days.  The  island  had  not  been  struck 
by  a  hurricane  comparable  to  this  since  1831,  and  it 
is  said  to  have  excelled  in  destructive  violence  the 
greater  one  of  1780. 


346  THE    WEST  INDIES 

It  was  on  his  third  voyage  in  1498  that  Columbus 
discovered  the  island  of  St.  Vincent.  It  was  granted 
to  the  Earl  of  Carlisle  by  Charles  I.  in  1627,  given  to 
Lord  Willoughby  by  Charles  II.  in  1672,  and  be- 
stowed upon  Lord  Montagu  by  George  I.  in  1722; 
but  the  Caribs  made  a  desperate  resistance  to  the 
delivery  of  the  goods  in  each  case,  and  as  France 
put  in  a  rival  claim,  it  was  agreed  by  the  treaty  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  to  leave  it  neutral  like  Dominica  and 
let  its  own  people  keep  it  a  while  longer.  The 
agreement  was  disregarded  by  adventurous  colonists, 
and  French  and  English  long  fought  for  possession. 
It  was  conceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the  treaty  of 
1763,  and  settlers  began  to  fight  the  Caribs  in  ear- 
nest. There  were  still  French  and  English  conten- 
tions, but  after  1783  the  English  held  the  island,  and 
in  1796  they  settled  the  Carib  question  after  a  bloody 
struggle  by  transporting  nearly  all  that  were  left  of 
the  aborigines  to  the  island  of  Roatan  in  Honduras 
Bay.  A  small  remnant  was  left,  which  with  a  mix- 
ture of  negro  blood  still  survives  on  a  reservation  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  island,  peacefully  cultivating 
yams  and  arrowroot.  It  is  similar  to  the  remnant 
in  Dominica,  living  apart,  but  so  modified  by  the 
African  strain  as  to  exhibit  none  of  the  fierce  char- 
acteristics attributed  to  the  race. 

After  the  peace  of  1783  had  finally  confirmed  Brit- 
ish possession,  sugar  plantations  under  slave  labour 
were  developed  on  the  fertile  slopes  of  St.  Vincent, 
and  planters  grew  rich.  Since  the  abolition  of  slav- 
ery there  has  been  the  decline  elsewhere  experienced 
in  the  English  islands,  and  of  the  48,000  inhabitants 


ST.   LUCIA   AND   ST.    VINCENT  347 

less  than  3000  are  of  unmixed  European  blood. 
Some  Asiatic  coolies  were  introduced  and  a  few 
Portuguese  labourers  from  the  Azores,  but  the  large 
profits  of  sugar  were  gone,  and  many  plantations 
have  been  broken  up  into  small  allotments.  The 
blacks  are  gradually  becoming  landholders,  and 
arrowroot  is  now  the  chief  export. 

Kingstown  on  the  leeward  coast,  at  the  extreme 
south-west,  is  the  one  available  port,  and  there  is,  or 
was  before  the  last  hurricane,  a  straggling  town  of 
6000  people,  or  less,  on  the  shore.  The  bay  was 
beautiful  to  look  upon,  with  a  verdant  amphitheatre 
back  of  it,  and  red-roofed  houses  rising  on  the  lower 
slopes  amid  palm  trees  and  gardens.  In  the  middle, 
at  the  highest  point,  was  a  substantial  government 
house  surrounded  by  a  botanical  garden.  There 
were  three  parallel  avenues  conforming  to  the  curve 
of  the  shore,  and  intersecting  streets  ran  up  the 
slopes  and  out  to  the  suburban  gardens  and  planta- 
tions. It  is  the  trading  centre  and  the  one  town  of 
importance  in  the  island,  and  it  contains  the  churches 
and  chapels  of  five  Protestant  denominations  and  an 
increasing  number  of  schools.  Away  from  Kings- 
town the  population  is  almost  wholly  rural,  occupy- 
ing scattered  villages,  which  consist  of  negroes'  huts 
clustering  about  a  few  more  substantial  structures, 
or  living  in  cabins  appurtenant  to  the  old  plantation 
buildings.  Industry  and  trade  have  relapsed  to  a 
primitive  state  and  respond  but  feebly  to  the  pulsa- 
tions of  the  world's  commerce,  which  touch  the 
island  only  at  the  port  of  Kingstown. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

THE  GRENADINES  AND  GRENADA 

THE  sixty  miles  between  St.  Vincent  and  Gren- 
ada is  strewn  with  islets,  which  continue  the 
great  curve  of  the  Caribbees,  bearing  a  little  west  of 
south.  They  are  called  the  Grenadines,  and  state- 
ments of  their  number  range  from  three  hundred  to 
six  hundred,  but  most  of  them  are  mere  rocks  and 
bits  of  earth.  On  the  surface  they  have  the  appear- 
ance of  fragments  of  some  greater  island,  shattered 
to  pieces  and  scattered  over  the  waters ;  but  in  real- 
ity they  are  the  peaks  and  pinnacles  of  a  submerged 
mountain  ridge,  with  deep  water  around  and  among 
them — a  section  of  the  broken  and  partly  sunken 
bridge  which  in  ages  far  remote  connected  the  con- 
tinents on  their  eastern  side  and  inclosed  the  double 
basin  of  a  sea  whose  outlet  was  over  the  present 
Cordilleras  to  the  Pacific,  as  modern  scientific  men 
believe. 

Some  of  these  islands  are  fertile  and  cultivated, 
and  all  together  have  perhaps  a  dozen  square  miles 
of  area  and  3000  inhabitants.  Bequia,  a  short  dis- 
tance from  St.  Vincent,  is  six  miles  long,  and  con- 

348 


THE   GRENADINES  AND   GRENADA  349 

tains  some  8000  acres,  and  Cariacou,  or  Cariabacu, 
near  the  southern  end  of  the  range,  is  the  next 
largest.  Many  of  them  have  names,  some  of  Carib 
origin,  like  the  two  already  mentioned,  some  derived 
from  families  that  have  owned  or  occupied  them,  as 
BalHceaux  and  Battowia,  but  more  from  some  physi- 
cal characteristic  or  aspect,  as  Round,  Castle,  Sail, 
Bird,  Mosquito,  and  so  on.  The  present  dwellers  are 
mostly  negroes,  and  though  some  cultivate  patches 
of  sugar-cane,  cotton,  indigo,  or  fruit  trees,  where 
once  were  considerable  plantations,  for  the  most  part 
they  raise  "  provisions,"  and  cattle  and  sheep,  build 
boats,  and  go  a-fishing.  Sometimes  they  catch 
whales  among  the  rocks  and  reefs  and  extract  their 
oil.  Often  an  island  is  owned  by  a  single  person, 
or  by  a  family  which  is  engaged  in  raising  cattle  and 
poultry,  and,  from  the  centre  all  round  to  the  sea, 
is  "  lord  of  the  fowl  and  the  brute."  And  they  are 
said  to  be  much  attached  to  their  broken  bits  of 
country,  these  people  of  the  Grenadines.  The  land 
is  volcanic  and  in  places  fertile;  but,  with  water 
everywhere  around,  there  is  sometimes  a  lack  of 
that  which  is  good  to  drink,  for  there  are  no  running 
streams  and  few  wells  that  escape  a  decided  saline 
flavour.  On  Cariacou  there  is  a  sloping  hill  1000 
feet  high,  and  elsewhere  there  are  varied  heights 
and  terraces  of  the  jagged  character  which  on  other 
islands  appears  high  in  air  instead  of  along  the  water- 
level.  Symptoms  of  volcanic  action  in  the  depths 
are  sometimes  exhibited  even  yet. 

Having  passed  these  straggling  Cyclades,  we  come 
to  Grenada,  last  and  most  beautiful  of  the  Caribbean 


350  THE    WEST  INDIES 

isles.  It  is  about  eighteen  miles  long  by  seven  wide, 
with  an  area  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  square  miles, 
and  has  a  range  of  volcanic  hills  running  through  it 
and  throwing  off  lower  ridges  which  sink  into  gentle 
slopes  and  spread  into  valleys,  though  they  some- 
times strike  the  coast  with  steep  promontories  and 
abrupt  cliffs.  Many  streams  come  down  between 
the  slopes,  their  banks  softening  into  marsh-land  near 
the  sea.  There  is  a  central  culminating  peak,  Mount 
Maitland,  2750  feet  high;  and  crumbling  cones  here 
and  there  are  vestiges  of  ancient  craters.  Doubt- 
less the"  Grand  Etang,"  or  "  Big  Pond,"  up  in  the 
mountains,  occupies  a  space  that  once  belched  fire 
from  the  "  burning  core  below."  It  is  1740  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  nearly  circular,  two  miles  and  a 
half  in  circumference,  and  rimmed  around  with  wav- 
ing palm  and  bamboo. 

The  special  charm  of  the  scenery  of  Grenada  is 
in  the  softening  of  the  jagged  outlines  made  by  rifts 
and  scars  of  volcanic  action,  a  variety  of  form  and 
colour  and  of  material  in  the  exposed  rocks,  and 
an  exceptional  richness  in  the  thick  vesture  of 
verdure  and  of  bloom  that  covers  it.  Among  its 
forest-clad  precipices  are  grey  and  red  sandstone 
buttresses,  basaltic  pillars  and  colonnades,  slabs  of 
argillaceous  schist  and  ornamental  porphyries;  and 
in  the  mossy  and  fern-clothed  glens  are  pure  rivu- 
lets, while  sulphurous  and  chalybeate  springs  sug- 
gest the  everlasting  fires  below.  The  animal  life 
is  mostly  of  the  familiar  tropic  kind,  but  with  no 
noxious  reptiles,  though  the  scorpion  and  centi- 
pede seem  almost  to  merge  from  the  insect  to  the 


THE   GRENADINES  AND   GRENADA  35  I 

reptilian  order.  The  iguana  is  rather  plentiful,  and 
among  the  mountains  is  a  "  wilderness  of  mon- 
keys," much  given  to  making  raids  upon  neigh- 
bouring plantations  and  often  hunted  as  ''  rare 
sport  "  by  the  unfeeling  victims  of  their  pranks. 
As  in  most  of  the  Antilles,  the  humming-bird  is 
conspicuous  among  feathered  creatures,  and  the 
firefly  shines  in  the  insect  tribe.  The  variety  and 
profusion  of  vegetation  and  of  fruit  seem  almost 
without  limit,  ranging  from  shore  to  mountain  top. 
It  was  on  his  third  voyage  in  1498  that  Columbus 
discovered  this  island,  and  called  it  Ascension, 
watching  the  church  calendar,  as  usual,  for  his 
names;  but  the  Spaniards  seem  to  have  forgotten 
about  it  or  to  have  considered  it  prudent  to  leave  its 
Carib  possessors  undisturbed.  It  was  included  in 
the  prodigal  grant  to  the  Earl  of  Carlisle,  but  about 
1650,  when  royal  grants  were  out  of  favour  in  Eng- 
land, the  French  came  down  from  Martinique  under 
Governor  Duparquet,  a  nephew  of  that  doughty  ad- 
venturer, Captain  Esnambuc,  and,  after  getting 
the  good-will  of  the  unsuspecting  natives,  proceeded 
to  their  extermination  in  the  most  systematic  and 
cruel  fashion.  On  the  northern  coast  there  is  a 
promontory  called  the  "  Morne  des  Sauteurs, "  or, 
by  the  English,  "  The  Caribs'  Leap,"  where  the  last 
of  the  desperate  and  hounded  aborigines  are  said  to 
have  thrown  themselves  into  the  sea.  But  little 
progress  was  made  until  17 14,  when  the  French 
West  India  Company  acquired  property  here  and 
established  intercourse  with  Martinique.  The  Brit- 
ish seized  this  island  at  the  time  of  Rodney's  first 


352  THE    WEST  INDIES 

cruise  in  1762,  and  held  it  after  the  peace,  and 
though  the  French  captured  it  in  1779,  it  was  re- 
covered by  Rodney's  great  victory  of  1782,  and  has 
been  in  English  hands  ever  since. 

It  had  its  era  of  prosperity  in  the  days  of  great 
sugar  plantations,  when  most  of  its  cultivated  soil 
was  devoted  to  cane-fields,  though  equally  adapted 
to  cotton,  tobacco,  indigo,  and  all  manner  of  fruits 
and  spices.  With  the  abolition  of  slavery  and  the 
depression  in  sugar  came  languor  and  decay.  Old 
planters  gave  it  up  and  went  home;  there  was  a 
general  emigration  of  whites,  and  the  land  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  negroes  in  small  parcels,  until  the 
Europeans  numbered  a  few  hundred  among  a  popu- 
lation of  near  50,000.  It  is  a  populous  island  in 
proportion  to  habitable  area,  and  though  it  no  longer 
exports  much  of  the  old  "  colonial  produce,"  it  has 
been  more  prosperous  for  the  actual  inhabitants  than 
in  the  slavery  days.  They  raise  little  cotton,  sugar, 
and  coffee,  but  cacao  has  become  a  staple,  and  gin- 
ger, nutmegs,  cloves,  and  other  spices,  and  even 
tea,  are  grown,  and  show  the  capabilities  of  the 
land.  On  the  different  levels  the  capacity  for  varied 
production  is  such  that  a  systematic  industry  would 
make  this  a  source  of  all  tropical  luxuries. 

There  were  once  several  good  harbours  on  this 
island,  Egmont  in  the  south,  Grenville  Bay  in  the 
east,  and  Charlotteville  in  the  north ;  but  of  late 
even  the  chief  port  is  not  much  used — St.  George 
in  the  south-west,  where  the  capital,  St.  George's, 
or  George  Town,  is  situated,  headquarters  of  the 
Windward  Islands  government.     This  is  called  the 


THE   GRENADINES  AND   GRENADA  353 

"  finest  harbour  in  the  Antilles."  A  long  penin- 
sula stretches  into  the  bay,  ending  with  a  headland, 
formerly  strongly  fortified,  but  latterly  fallen  into 
neglect.  On  the  right  of  this,  looking  inward  from 
the  sea,  is  the  deep  "  carenage,"  where  large  vessels 
can  come  close  in  shore  and  be  safe.  Within  the 
fortified  headland  along  the  slope  of  the  peninsula 
for  nearly  a  mile  straggles  the  white  town  with  its 
red  roofs  and  its  church  spires,  pretty  at  a  distance 
but  shabby  and  out  of  repair  within.  The  long 
street  leads  to  suburban  villas  and  gardens  on 
the  semicircular  slope  at  the  head  of  the  lagoon, 
which  heighten  the  beauty  of  the  picture,  while 
farther  back  rise  the  verdant  hills  even  to  that  cen- 
tral volcanic  peak.  Across  the  bay  is  the  "  Etang 
du  Vieux  Bourg,"  a  pond  with  surroundings  suggest- 
ive of  volcanic  eruption  and  of  earthquake,  and 
said  by  vague  tradition  to  be  the  site  of  an  old 
French  town.  It  seems  to  be  an  ancient  crater,  and 
the  broken  and  dilapidated  end  of  the  island  near 
here  marks  the  termination  of  the  volcanic  ridge 
that  cuts  the  sea  with  a  curve  of  a  thousand  miles 
and  sticks  its  jagged  edges  in  the  air.  Between  it 
and  the  South  American  coast  is  a  space  of  sixty 
miles  of  deep  water. 

Grenada  is  divided  into  six  parishes  for  purposes 
of  administration,  and  it  has  a  legislative  assembly 
of  seventeen  elective  members,  but  qualified  voters 
are  few.  There  is  a  fine  government  house  and  a 
few  stately  mansions  at  or  near  St.  George's,  and 
there  are  several  English  Protestant  and  French 
Catholic  churches,  some  with  schools  for  the  blacks, 


354 


THE    WEST  INDIES 


who  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  growing  generation. 
Life  in  this  charming  island  is  languid,  and  for 
many  years  industry  has  seemed  lazy  and  trade  dis- 
couraged. Perhaps  the  lavish  generosity  of  nature 
and  the  ease  with  which  life  may  be  sustained  in 
indolent  comfort  make  it  too  much  like  the  land 


and 


In  which  it  seemed  always  afternoon," 


All  round  the  coast  the  languid  air  did  swoon, 
Breathing  like  one  that  hath  a  heavy  dream." 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 


BARBADOS 


THE  island  of  Barbados  is  isolated  from  the  rest 
of  the  West  Indies  in  more  senses  than  one. 
It  is  ninety-five  miles  from  the  nearest  point  in  the 
Caribbees,  which  is  the  southern  end  of  St.  Lucia, 
and  the  intervening  space  sinks  to  a  depth  of  1350 
fathoms,  or  more  than  8000  feet.  It  is  still  farther 
from  Tobago  and  the  continental  system  of  South 
America,  with  abysmal  depths  of  ocean  between. 
It  is  the  flattened  top  of  a  vast  cone,  lifted  during 
the  reign  of  "  chaos  and  old  night  "  by  Titanic 
forces  beneath,  at  a  weal;  spot  in  the  earth's  crust, 
out  of  the  profound  depths  to  the  water's  surface, 
and  there  covered  during  long  ages  with  coral  de- 
posits. Its  limestone  structure  is  in  layers  which 
indicate  a  succession  of  upheavals,  and  from  certain 
points  of  view  the  present  surface  rises  in  terraces 
toward  a  central  elevation.  Quarries  reveal  the  dif- 
ferent coral  beds  distinctly.  On  the  windward  side 
the  aspect  is  more  broken  and  the  work  of  external 
erosion  is  more  apparent.  There  is  a  highland  sec- 
tion, popularly  called  "  Scotland,"  where  there  is 

355 


356  THE    WEST  INDIES 

sandstone  and  a  chalky  soil  containing  remains  of 
infusoria;  but  six  sevenths  of  the  area. is  of  coralline 
limestone.  At  one  point  the  trachyte  core  of  the 
huge  cone  appears  above  ground,  and  there  are  still 
traces  of  old  volcanic  action.  The  polyps  have  not 
ceased  their  work,  or  rather  their  growth,  and  the 
island  is  almost  encircled  with  reefs.  In  some  places 
the  fringe  is  three  miles  wide.  There  are  few  deep 
channels  in  this  coral  rim,  and  navigation  is  danger- 
ous for  those  not  familiar  with  the  passages. 

This  island  is  twenty-one  miles  long  from  north 
to  south,  and  about  fourteen  miles  across  at  the 
widest  part,  expanding  toward  the  south  into  a 
rough  pear  shape.  It  is  fifty-five  miles  around  the 
shore,  not  following  the  indentations,  and  the  area 
is  one  hundred  and  sixty-six  square  miles.  A  low 
ridge  runs  through  the  land  nearly  north  and  south, 
culminating  somewhat  north  of  the  middle  point  in 
Mount  Hillaby,  which  is  only  1 145  feet  above  the 
sea-level;  but  the  surface  in  general  is  undulating, 
with  a  great  variety  of  hill  and  dale  of  the  gentler 
kind,  and  none  of  the  abrupt  declivities  and  wild 
ravines  of  the  Antilles.  It  is  a  "  rolling  country," 
and  a  verdant  one.  The  ingredients  of  the  soil, 
derived  from  coral  limestone  and  ancient  volcanic 
ashes,  moulded  with  the  remains  of  thousands  of 
generations  of  vegetable  life,  produce  a  mixture  of 
inexhaustible  fertility.  Once  it  was  covered  with 
forests,  but  these  have  been  swept  away,  and  nearly 
the  whole  surface  has  been  long  under  cultivation, 
which  has  reduced  the  indigenous  flora  to  com- 
parative insignificance.     There   are  palm  trees  and 


BARBADOS  357 

remnants  of  tropical  growth,  but  they  are  not  con- 
spicuous, and  the  gardens  are  variegated  with  exotic 
trees  and  plants,  and  a  kind  of  bloom  that  suggests 
old  England. 

The  streams  are  few  and  insignificant,  and  the 
porous  and  well-drained  ground  is  free  from  mi- 
asma. The  island  is  healthy,  fanned  by  the  steady 
trade-winds  for  three  quarters  of  the  year,  though 
it  has  its  hot  "  spells"  and  its  wet"  spells,"  like 
other  tropic  lands.  The  driest  month  is  March 
and  the  wettest  is  October,  and  there  are  all  grada- 
tions between  without  a  distinct  line  limiting  the 
wet  and  dry  seasons.  Much  of  the  time  one  needs 
an  umbrella  against  the  sun  or  against  the  rain,  but 
there  are  weeks  of  breezy  and  delightful  weather. 
The  fauna  has  been  as  much  modified  as  the  flora. 
There  are  no  wild  animals  and  few  reptiles,  and  even 
the  insects  are  comparatively  innocuous,  as  the  re- 
sult of  that  civilisation  which  subdues  the  luxuriance 
of  nature  and  subjects  the  soil  to  the  wholesome 
processes  of  cultivation.  The  animals  and  fowls  are 
mostly  domestic,  and  even  the  wild  birds  are  not 
specially  tropical,  but  the  surrounding  w^aters  abound 
with  fish  whose  habitat  has  not  been  changed. 

Barbados  was  isolated  even  in  its  discovery  and  in 
its  history,  and  the  origin  of  the  name  is  lost  in  ob- 
scurity. Columbus  knew  not  of  it,  and  it  is  not  cer- 
tain that  its  discoverers  were  Spanish.  It  has  been 
assumed  that  the  word  "  barbados  "  is  Portuguese, 
meaning  "  bearded,"  and  that  wandering  navigators 
of  Portugal  came  upon  the  island  first  and  fixed  its  la- 
bel ;  but ' '  barbado  ' '  is  Spanish  as  well  as  Portuguese 


358  THE    WEST  INDIES 

for  "  bearded,"  and  there  is  no  record  of  discovery 
by  men  of  Portugal.  Mr.  Froude  said  that  he  had 
seen  the  name  upon  a  Spanish  chart  of  1525,  but 
other  writers  declare  that  there  is  no  mention  of  the 
island  earlier  than  1536.  It  appeared  upon  old 
Spanish  charts  as  San  Bernardo,  Bernados,  Barbu- 
doso,  Baruodos,  and  Baruodo,  which  may  be  varia- 
tions of  an  ill-known  name  and  exhibitions  of  early 
eccentricities  in  orthography.  Even  the  meaning  of 
the  name  is  disputed.  It  is  generally  explained  as 
referring  to  a  wild  fig  or  banyan  tree  which  sends 
shoots  down  to  the  ground  like  beards,  and  which 
were  common  in  the  island  when  it  was  discov- 
ered, giving  its  landscape  a  profusion  of  whiskers. 
Mr.  Froude  did  not  like  this  derivation,  and  be- 
lieved that  the  Spaniards  found  bearded  Caribs 
there  when  they  went  around  capturing  wild  men  to 
do  their  work;  but  there  is  no  evidence  of  that,  and 
the  Spaniards  did  not  succeed  in  making  slaves  of 
the  Caribs  who  were  much  nearer  their  base  than 
this  island.  Besides,  we  have  no  record  of  whiskered 
Caribs,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  Spaniards  visited 
Barbados  at  all ;  but  as  this  word  is  used  in  their 
language  for  shoots  growing  from  trees,  without 
thought  of  the  original  figurative  sense,  it  seems 
hardly  necessary  to  strain  so  hard  for  a  derivation. 

The  first  thing  definitely  known  is  that  after  this 
island  appeared  upon  the  charts  as  Barbados,  an 
English  skipper  on  his  way  to  Surinam  with  the  Olive 
Blossom  landed  on  its  shores,  set  up  a  cross,  and 
carved  upon  a  tree,  "  James,  King  of  England  and 
of  this  island."     That  was  in  1605,  and  it  is  said  that 


BARBADOS  359 

the  island  was  then  covered  with  woods  and  in- 
habited only  by  "  wild  hogs,"  which  may  refer  to 
peccaries.  There  were  then,  so  far  as  known,  no 
Caribs  there  to  be  captured  or  exterminated.  In 
1624,  Sir  William  Courteen,  a  London  merchant, 
trading  with  Guiana,  sent  a  ship  to  Barbados  to 
establish  a  claim  for  himself,  but  the  next  year  a 
patent  of  proprietorship  was  granted  to  the  Earl  of 
Marlborough,  and  two  ships  went  out  under  his 
authority,  and  landed  in  February,  1625,  with  thirty 
colonists.  They  called  their  settlement  Jamestown, 
but  in  1627  the  island  was  included  in  the  grant  to 
the  Earl  of  Carlisle  on  condition  of  a  certain  pay- 
ment to  Marlborough  for  his  interest.  Under 
authority  of  the  new  proprietor,  the  Society  of 
London  Merchants  acquired  10,000  acres  of  land, 
sent  out  colonists,  and' established  a  government  of 
their  own.  Their  settlement  was  made  in  1628  on 
the  south-west  coast,  where  there  was  a  good  road- 
stead, which  they  called  Carlisle  Bay.  Where  they 
established  their  town  there  was  a  rude  bridge  over 
a  creek,  and  they  called  the  place  Bridgetown,  and 
so  it  is  unto  this  day. 

The  first  settlers  raised  maize — which  in  our  time 
and  country  we  call  simply  "  corn," — yams,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  plantains,  and,  after  a  time,  indigo, 
cotton,  tobacco,  and  ginger;  and  from  the  woods 
they  obtained  logwood,  fustic,  and  other  merchant- 
able articles,  for  the  time  of  sugar-cane  and  slavery 
was  not  yet.  In  time,  British  fashion,  they  organ- 
ised their  government  on  the  home  model,  with 
executive,  judicial,  and  legislative  powers,  and  es- 


360  THE    WEST  INDIES 

tablished  parishes  for  local  administration.  They 
throve  mightily,  and  it  is  recorded  that  there  were 
50,000  inhabitants  twenty  years  after  the  first  settle- 
ment. Some  of  them  were  Irish  contract  labourers 
and  others  were  of  the  convict  class,  but  the  colony 
was  growing  so  decidedly  English  that  it  was  called 

Little  England. ' '  It  became  a  refuge  for  cavaliers 
in  the  Parliament  and  Commonwealfh  time,  and  was 
intensely  loyal.  On  hearing  of  the  death  of  Charles 
I.,  the  people  swore  allegiance  to  Charles  II.,  and 
Lord  Willoughby  became  governor  by  authority  of 
that  exiled  and  uncrowned  monarch.  It  caused 
much  contention,  and  Cromwell  sent  out  Sir  George 
Ayscue  with  a  squadron  to  settle  matters.  Lord 
Willoughby  was  disposed  to  resist,  and,  as  Ayscue 
did  not  fancy  suppressing  Englishmen  by  force,  the 
matter  was  composed  in  an  amicable  way.  When 
Venables  and  Penn  were  on  their  way  to  seize  Span- 
ish possessions  in  the  West  Indies,  they  took  volun- 
teer reinforcements  from  Barbados,  and  these  helped 
to  start  the  Jamaica  colony. 

After  the  Restoration,  Lord  Willoughby  was  gov- 
ernor again,  and  in  1663  the  proprietary  interest  was 
extinguished,  the  Crown  taking  direct  control  and 
granting  a  colonial  "  constitution,"  which  has  de- 
veloped with  little  change  since.  Lord  Willoughby 
was  lost  in  a  hurricane  in  1666,  while  on  his  way  to 
attack  Guadeloupe,  and  his  brother,  Lord  William, 
became  governor.  By  this  time  the  slave  trade  was 
under  way,  and  Barbados  became  the  chief  English 
market  for  Africans,  next  to  Kingston  in  Jamaica, 
with  a  rival  in  the  northern  islands  at  St.  Kitt's. 


BARBADOS  36 1 

The  monopoly  granted  in  England  to  the  Royal 
African  Company  injured  the  profits  of  this  busi- 
ness, but  the  sugar  plantation  system  developed 
under  slave  labour,  and  Barbados  had  a  long  period 
of  increasing  wealth.  Bridgetown  became  the  great 
central  mart  for  British  trade,  and  was  made  the 
English  military  and  naval  headquarters  in  the  West 
Indies.  It  acquired  the  airs  of  a  thriving  metro- 
polis, and  Pfere  Labat  was  greatly  impressed  with  its 
magnificence  two  centuries  ago. 

Barbados  is  isolated  in  its  history  inasmuch  as  it 
v/as  never  the  subject  of  the  conflict  for  possession 
that  went  on  so  long.  It  was  British  from  the  start, 
and  though  sometimes  menaced  was  never  attacked. 
It  took  part  in  the  British  assaults  upon  other  islands, 
but  only  as  a  loyal  supporter  of  the  home  govern- 
ment. Its  "  constitutional  rights  "  and  its  "  repre- 
sentative institutions"  led  it  to  indulge  in  political 
controversies,  and  it  fought  against  trade  restrictions 
and  customs  duties  upon  its  products,  and  once  de- 
clared the  principle  that  a  colony  with  representative 
institutions  was  not  subject  to  taxation  by  the  home 
government.  One  of  the  stirring  incidents  in  its 
history  was  the  flying  visit  of  Lord  Nelson  in  1805, 
when  he  was  chasing  the  French  fleet  and  the  island 
colonies  were  in  dread  of  a  combined  attack  from 
France  and  Spain.  There  was  no  French  fleet  there 
and  no  present  danger  of  the  combined  attack,  but 
the  Barbadians  were  so  relieved  and  so  proud  and 
grateful  that  after  Nelson's  great  victory  they  named 
the  principal  square  of  Bridgetown  Trafalgar,  and 
put  a  bronze  statue  of  the  naval  hero  in  it. 


362  THE  WEST  INDIES 

The  population  of  Barbados  has  increased  to 
about  200,cxx).  In  1887  it  had  reached  more  than 
180,000,  and  it  is  the  most  densely  peopled  piece  of 
earth  of  its  extent  anywhere.  When  the  slave  trade 
was  abolished  in  1806,  there  were  60,000  negroes  in 
the  island,  and  in  1834,  83,176  slaves  were  emanci- 
pated, the  compensation  for  owners  being  twenty 
pounds  and  fourteen  shillings  per  head.  Now,  nine 
tenths  of  the  population  are  free  negroes  who  work 
for  hire.  The  planters  escaped  the  labour  trouble 
that  followed  emancipation  in  the  other  English 
islands  because  the  land  was  substantially  all  in  the 
hands  of  owners  and  under  cultivation.  The  negroes 
had  to  work  for  them  or  starve.  They  could  not 
squat  upon  little  patches  and  live  on  yams  and  fruit 
or  cultivate  small  crops  for  sale.  There  were  five 
hundred  great  sugar  plantations  and  many  small 
holdings  in  the  hands  of  white  men,  practically 
covering  the  island,  and  it  was  not  an  easy  place  for 
a  freed  negro  to  emigrate  from.  The  relations  were 
not  greatly  changed  by  freedom,  except  that  those 
of  forced  dependence  and  subjection  were  severed. 
The  blacks  obtained  no  political  rights  or  social 
recognition,  but  had  to  take  care  of  themselves  with 
their  slender  earnings.  Barbados,  like  the  other 
sugar-growing  islands,  has  suffered  from  depression 
in  the  price  of  cane-sugar  and  the  stimulated  com- 
petition of  beet  root.  It  has  kept  up  the  struggle  and 
done  little  to  vary  its  industries,  though  its  soil  and 
climate  are  adapted  to  a  great  variety  of  products. 

Barbados  has  always  had  a  certain  degree  of 
autonomy  as  a  Crown  colony,  and  prior  to  1885  it 


BARBADOS  363 

was  the  headquarters  of  the  government  of  the 
Windward  Islands.  Since  then  it  has  been  a  colony 
by  itself,  with  a  governor  appointed  by  the  Crown, 
a  legislative  council  of  nine  members,  of  whom  two 
are  officials  and  the  others  appointed  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  governor.  It  has  long  had  a 
"  house  of  assembly,"  consisting  of  twenty-four 
elective  members,  but  there  is  a  moderate  property 
qualification  for  the  suffrage  and  a  higher  one  for 
eligibility  to  the  house.  Formerly  there  were  only 
about  1200  or  1300  qualified  voters,  but  the  suffrage 
has  been  extended  so  as  to  take  in  something  over 
4000  citizens.  An  executive  council,  presided  over 
by  the  governor,  and  consisting  of  the  commander  of 
the  troops,  the  colonial  secretary,  the  attorney-gen- 
eral, one  appointed  member  of  the  legislative  coun- 
cil, and  four  members  of  the  house  of  assembly 
selected  by  the  governor,  proposes  all  measures  of 
legislation  and  sees  to  their  execution.  The  gover- 
nor is  himself  the  commander  of  the  naval  forces  in 
the  West  Indies.  Two  members  of  the  assembly 
are  elected  in  each  of  eleven  parishes  and  two  addi- 
tional in  the  city  of  Bridgetown,  which  is  in  the 
parish  of  St.  Michael's. 

The  parishes  have  their  vestries  with  local  juris- 
diction, three  of  them  with  sixteen  members  each, 
and  eight  of  them  with  ten,  all  elected.  There  is  a 
board  of  thirty-three  road  commissioners  appointed 
by  the  governor,  and  the  highways  are  kept  in 
excellent  condition.  The  governor  also  appoints 
a  central  board  of  education,  and  the  local  control 
of  schools   is   in   the  hands  of  the   clergy  and   of 


364  THE   WEST  INDIES 

committees.  In  1712,  Sir  Christopher  Codring- 
ton  bequeathed  two  valuable  estates  to  found  a 
college,  and  the  first  buildings  were  completed  a 
few  years  later  in  an  attractive  location  some  four- 
teen miles  from  Bridgetown.  Codrington  College 
ranks  high  among  colonial  institutions  of  learning. 
There  are  four  scholarships  with  an  income  of  ;^  175 
each,  tenable  at  either  Oxford  or  Cambridge,  under 
the  direction  of  the  board  of  education.  The  school 
system  of  the  island  is  well  supported  and  ef^cient. 
Elementary  instruction  is  quite  general,  and  the 
people  are,  as  a  rule,  well  ordered.  The  English 
Church  is  partly  supported  by  the  government  and 
includes  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  the  inhabit- 
ants, though  there  are  dissenters,  Roman  Catholics, 
and  Jews,  with  places  of  worship.  Barbados  is  an 
English  bishopric  which  formerly  had  a  wide  juris- 
diction, but  one  has  since  been  established  at  Anti- 
gua and  another  at  Trinidad.  The  judiciary  includes 
a  court  of  chancery,  a  court  of  admiralty,  and  one  of 
sessions  (with  criminal  jurisdiction).  The  annual 
revenues  amount  to  about  $750,000. 

Nearly  all  the  trade  is  centred  at  Bridgetown,  and 
in  and  about  it  is  gathered  a  third  of  the  population 
of  the  island.  It  lies  along  the  curved  beach  of 
Carlisle  Bay  for  two  miles,  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  upon 
whose  slopes  are  many  gardens  and  villas.  It  is 
well  laid  out  and  substantially  built,  having  been 
twice  nearly  destroyed  by  fire  in  times  past,  and  has 
a  spacious  market-place  and  a  fine  public  square 
with  shade  trees.  The  government  buildings  are 
near  the   sea,    and   a  short   distance   away   are   the 


BARBADOS  365 

spacious  barracks  and  the  military  hospital.  St. 
Michael's  Cathedral,  which  is  solid  but  plain,  St. 
Mary's  Church,  and  the  Jewish  synagogue  are 
among  the  notable  buildings.  There  are  several 
hotels,  and  a  newspaper  which  was  established  in 
1730.  The  port  is  an  open  roadstead,  and  the  inner 
harbour,  or  "  car^nage,"  will  not  admit  vessels  of 
deep  draught ;  but  Bridgetown  is  the  terminus  for  the 
transatlantic  steamship  service,  and  the  centre  of  dis- 
tribution for  traffic  with  the  other  English  islands,  as 
well  as  a  port  of  call  between  the  United  States  and 
South  America.  It  is  also  connected  with  the  ocean 
telegraph  system.  Fontabelle  is  an  attractive  sub- 
urban place,  and  Hastings  is  a  popular  resort.  Other 
places  along  the  coast  are  Spaightstown,  Hoisting- 
town,  and  Holetown.  There  are  twenty-five  or 
thirty  miles  of  railway  on  the  island,  mostly  for 
plantation  service. 

Not  only  the  language  and  the  laws  but  all  the 
characteristics  and  traditions  of  Barbados  are  dis- 
tinctively English, — one  might  say  intensely  English. 
It  is  sometimes  called  "  Bimshire  "  and  its  people 

Bims,"  but  the  term  has  the  obscure  origin  of 
slang,  and  is  merely  expressive  to  the  popular  mind 
without  having  any  clear  significance.  While  the 
colony  has  not  been  flourishing  of  late  and  there 
have  been  signs  of  discontent,  and  though  the  over- 
crowded population  has  been  drifting  away  to  some 
extent,  its  natural  resources  and  attractions  are  likely 
to  renew  its  prosperity  as  soon  as  its  labour  force  is 
applied  to  a  greater  variety  of  industries.  It  has  not 
suffered  from  earthquakes  or  volcanoes  of  its  own, 


366  THE   WEST  INDIES 

but  its  position  and  its  comparatively  unbroken  sur- 
face expose  it  to  the  fury  of  the  hurricane.  The 
most  destructive  recorded  was  in  1780,  when  4326 
persons  lost  their  lives  and  the  damage  to  property 
amounted  to  about  ;i^i, 250,000  sterling.  There  was 
one  of  great  violence  in  1831,  when  the  loss  of  life 
was  less  and  the  injury  to  property  greater.  That 
which  has  already  been  mentioned  as  devastating 
St.  Lucia  and  St.  Vincent  on  September  11,  1898, 
struck  Barbados  on  the  evening  of  Saturday  the 
loth,  and  raged  through  the  night  with  dreadful 
fury.  Her  Majesty's  s^\^  Alert  got  out  of  the  har- 
bour of  Bridgetown,  but  a  number  of  merchant 
vessels  were  driven  upon  the  reefs  and  wrecked. 
Buildings  in  the  city  were  seriously  damaged,  many 
persons  lost  their  lives,  and  10,000  habitations  of 
labourers  on  the  island  were  blown  away.  Great 
injury  was  done  to  crops,  but  no  such  wide-spread 
destitution  and  suffering  were  produced  as  in  St. 
Vincent. 


CHAPTER   XXXVIII 


TOBAGO   AND   TRINIDAD 


THE  narrow  island  of  Tobago  lies  twenty  miles  to 
the  north-east  of  Trinidad,  which  is  the  nearest 
land,  fully  a  hundred  miles  to  the  south-east  of 
Grenada  at  the  terminus  of  the  Caribbees,  and  one 
hundred  and  twenty  miles  south-south-west  of  Bar- 
bados. It  is  surrounded  by  deep  water,  growing 
shallower  in  the  direction  of  Trinidad,  and  it  is  an 
outpost  of  the  South  American  land  system  of  which 
that  island  is  a  detached  fragment.  The  mountain 
range  that  runs  through  its  length  from  south-west 
to  north-east  is  like  a  deflected  continuation  of  that 
which  crosses  northern  Trinidad  from  the  Venezuela 
coast.  The  length  of  the  island  is  twenty-six  miles, 
and  its  greatest  width  seven  and  a  half,  and  it  has 
an  area  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  square 
miles.  Its  mountains  consist  of  volcanic  cones  and 
ridges,  and  are  covered  with  dense  forests.  The 
culminating  peak  rises  2130  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
Along  the  higher  steeps  the  pimento  grows  and  the 
parrakeets  feed  upon  the  aromatic  berries  which 
furnish   the    allspice    of    commerce.      Between    the 

367 


368  THE    WEST  INDIES 

mountain  forests  and  the  sea  there  is  a  belt  of  palm 
groves,  sugar  plantations,  and  the  dwelling-places 
of  a  sparse  population,  numbering  less  than  20,000 
in  all.  There  are  several  small  bays  upon  the  coast, 
but  the  only  one  much  used  is  in  the  south-west 
where  the  port  and  town  of  Scarborough  lies.  This 
is  the  capital  and  chief  trading-place,  and  though  it 
has  barely  1200  inhabitants  there  was  formerly  an 
export  trade  from  it  of  $400,000  yearly  value,  mostly 
in  sugar. 

Tobago  lies  so  that  the  trade-winds  sweep  both  its 
coasts,  and  it  has  a  healthy  climate.  It  has  a  tropi- 
cal profusion  of  plants  and  animals,  substantially 
like  those  of  Trinidad,  and  belonging  in  the  main  to 
the  South  American  system  of  flora  and  fauna, 
though  with  a  mixture  of  West  Indian  varieties. 
The  name  in  the  form  Tobaco  was  a  Carib  word 
applied  to  a  kind  of  pipe  in  which  the  dried  leaves 
which  the  natives  called  cohiba  were  smoked. 
When  the  island  was  discovered  it  was  occupied  by 
Caribs,  who  were  afterwards  driven  out  by  Arawaks 
from  Trinidad,  taking  refuge  in  St.  Vincent.  It 
had  been  desolate  and  deserted  for  a  long  time, 
when  some  Dutch  traders  from  Flushing  set  up  a 
station  there.  This  was  broken  up  and  the  settlers 
killed  or  carried  away  by  Spaniards  from  Trinidad, 
but  another  party  of  Flushingers,  or  Fichilingos,  as 
the  Spanish  called  them,  took  possession  in  1654. 
It  is  said  that  in  the  interval  of  solitude  an  Enghsh 
seaman  was  cast  away  upon  the  island,  and  that  his 
experience  furnished  the  suggestion  for  the  story  of 
Robinson  Crusoe,  the  man  Friday  being  a  Carib, 


TOBAGO  AND  TRINIDAD  369 

and  the  savages  who  afterwards  appeared  being 
Arawaks  from  Trinidad,  Tobago,  and  not  Juan 
Fernandez,  where  Alexander  Selkirk  was  cast 
ashore,  is  now  regarded  as  the  real  Crusoe's  island. 
The  Dutch  traders  had  the  sagacity  to  make  their 
island  neutral  ground  in  commerce  and  hold  it  open 
to  settlers  from  all  quarters,  but  the  result  was  that 
the  English  element  gained  a  preponderance,  and 
the  "  powers  "  which  made  the  treaty  of  Versailles 
in  1763  gave  it  to  Great  Britain  as  a  permanent  pos- 
session. There  had  been  a  considerable  number  of 
French  Huguenots  among  the  settlers,  but  in  1793 
all  remaining  Frenchmen  were  expelled  by  act  of 
the  colonial  assembly.  There  had  been  a  system 
of  bringing  out  labourers  from  Scotland  under  three- 
year  contracts — the  "  thirty-six  months'  men  " — 
but  it  was  superseded  by  the  more  profitable  use  of 
African  slaves,  and  the  cultivated  land,  not  more 
than  an  eighth  of  the  area  at  any  time,  was  occupied 
chiefly  by  sugar  plantations.  The  abolition  of  slav- 
ery had  a  depressing  effect,  and  there  are  but  a  few 
hundred  white  people  left  in  the  island.  Still,  the 
large  plantations  have  been  maintained,  and  sugar 
has  continued  to  be  the  chief  product  for  export, 
though  cacao,  coffee,  and  fruits  are  raised  to  a  slowly 
increasing  extent.  The  island  has  the  disadvantage 
of  being  off  the  main  lines  of  trade,  and  is  almost 
left  to  the  keeping  of  the  native  negroes.  It  is  at- 
tached to  the  Windward  Islands  colony,  and  has  an 
administrator  and  a  legislative  council,  but  the  latter 
consists  of  six  members  of  whom  three  are  of^cials 
and  the  other  three  are  appointed  by  the  governor. 


3/0  THE    WEST  INDIES 

The  governor  of  the  colony  has  absolute  control  of 
the  affairs  of  the  island. 

On  his  third  voyage  from  Spain  in  1498,  Colum- 
bus took  a  more  southerly  and  therefore  a  longer 
course  than  before.  He  had  been  two  months  from 
San  Lucar  and  nearly  a  month  from  the  Cape  Verde 
Islands;  his  vessels  had  been  buffeted  and  badly 
shaken,  and  he  was  short  of  water;  he  was  about  to 
turn  northward  to  make  for  the  colony  on  Espaftola, 
which  he  had  left  two  years  before,  when  land  was 
discerned  far  to  the  south-west.  There  seemed  to 
be  three  peaks  blending  into  one  mass,  and  in  de- 
vout gratefulness  he  called  it  La  Trinidad.  There 
is  a  doubtful  and  unnecessary  story  that  he  had 
vowed  to  name  the  first  newly  found  land  for  the 
Holy  Trinity  if  he  should  come  safely  through  his 
peril  and  distress.  Changing  his  course  southward, 
the  dauntless  navigator  made  his  way  down  the 
eastern  coast  of  a  forest-covered  island,  turned  along 
its  southern  shore,  passed  through  a  long,  narrow 
passage,  beset  with  currents,  which  he  called  La 
Boca  Sierpe  ("  Serpent  Mouth  "),  into  an  expanse  of 
water  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Golfo  de  la  Bal- 
ena,  or  ' '  Gulf  of  the  Whale. ' '  This  is  now  the  Gulf 
of  Paria,  lying  between  the  west  coast  of  Trinidad 
and  the  shores  of  Venezuela.  Turning  a  long,  sharp 
point  that  made  the  entrance  so  narrow,  Columbus 
followed  the  coast  of  the  island,  and  was  surprised  to 
find  so  near  the  equator  a  land  of  forests  and  palm 
trees,  of  luxuriant  vegetation  and  abundant  streams 
and  springs  of  water.  Of  the  people  he  said  that 
they  were  "  all  of  good  stature,  well  made,  and  of 


TOBAGO  AND  TRINIDAD  yj\ 

very  graceful  bearing,  with  much  and  smooth 
hair. ' ' 

But  he  could  not  linger  here,  his  thoughts  being 
with  the  forlorn  colony  at  Isabella,  left  so  long  in 
the  care  of  his  brother  and  possibly  at  the  mercy  of 
savages.  As  he  made  his  way  northward  out  of  the 
gulf,  to  his  left  stretched  the  whole  vast  continent  of 
South  America,  but  he  took  it  to  be  an  insignificant 
island,  and  called  it  Zeta.  He  found  the  northern 
passage  studded  with  rocky  islands,  like  huge  fangs, 
one  rising  to  a  height  of  looo  feet,  dividing  it  into 
channels  with  perilous  currents,  and  he  called  it  the 
Boca  Drago,  or  "  Dragon  Mouth."  Then  he  went 
his  way  across  the  Caribbean  Sea,  saw  Trinidad  no 
more,  and  knew  not  that  he  had  looked  slightingly 
upon  the  shores  of  a  vast  continent,  which  the  Vene- 
tian Vespucci  Avas  to  visit  at  this  very  spot  the  next 
year  with  Ojeda,  one  of  his  own  lieutenants,  and  gain 
the  credit  of  discovery.  It  was  Amerigo  Vespucci 
that  gave  the  name  of  Venezuela,  or  "  Little 
Venice,"  to  the  land  of  the  Orinoco  delta,  and  from 
him  the  designation  of  both  western  continents  has 
been  unjustly  derived. 

The  northern  coast-line  of  Trinidad  is  fifty-three 
miles  long,  the  eastern  forty-eight,  and  the  southern 
sixty-five;  and  the  western  side  of  the  island  in  a  di- 
rect line  is  about  forty-nine  miles  in  extent,  but  at 
the  north-west  and  south-west  angles  there  are  long 
projections  inclosing  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  and  reaching 
within  a  few  miles  of  the  Venezuela  coast,  and  these 
extend  the  northern  and  southern  coast-lines.  There 
is  also  a  long  projection  to  the  north-east.     But  for 


372  THE    WEST  INDIES 

these  extended  corners  the  island  would  be  nearly 
rectangular  and  not  far  from  square.  In  its  actual 
form  the  Spaniards  likened  it  to  an  ox-hide.  It  has 
an  area  of  1754  square  miles,  which  is  about  half  that 
of  Puerto  Rico,  and  nearly  three  times  that  of  Guade- 
loupe,  the  largest  of  the  Caribbees.  The  northern 
coast  is  abrupt  and  craggy,  and  parallel  to  it  runs  a 
mountain  range  with  a  general  altitude  of  1500  to 
3000  feet,  the  culminating  peak,  Tucutche,  being 
3100  feet  high,  and  the  Cerro  de  Aripo,  in  the  north- 
east, 2644.  This  ridge  is  composed  of  metamorphic 
masses  of  argillaceous  schist  with  steep  escarpments 
toward  the  sea,  and  is  continued  through  the  islands 
of  the  Dragon  Mouth  into  the  ranges  of  the  main- 
land. 

The  principal  islands  of  the  north-west  angle 
are  Mono  (Monkey),  Huevos  (Eggs),  and  Navios 
(Ships).  The  adjacent  channels,  or  "  bocas,"  have 
the  same  names  as  these  islands,  and  the  outer  and 
wndest  one  is  Boca  Grande.  The  cape  at  the  north- 
east corner  of  Trinidad  is  Point  Galera,  that  at  the 
south-east  Galeota,  and  the  long  projection  of  the 
south-west  is  Cape  Icacos.  Some  of  the  outlets  of 
the  Orinoco  delta  fall  into  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  dis- 
colouring its  waters  with  mud;  and  the  channels  of 
the  Boca  Sierpe  are  shifted  and  obstructed  by  alluvial 
deposits.  There  are  some  islets  here,  and  the  rock 
Soldado,  white  with  sea-birds.  Besides  the  rocky 
mountain  range  of  the  north,  there  is  a  solitary  mass 
in  the  interior.  Mount  Tamana,  1028  feet  high,  and 
near  the  west  coast  Mount  Naparima.  Parallel  with 
the   southern   coast   is  a  low   rang-e   of  dunes  and 


TOBAGO  AND  TRINIDAD  373 

wooded  elevations,  mingled  with  tertiary  rock,  while 
the  eastern  shore  has  been  filled  out  with  sand  and 
mud  deposited  from  the  vast  volume  of  the  Orinoco. 

The  mountains  of  Trinidad  are  covered  with  dense 
forests,  and  in  the  interior  are  wide,  grassy  plains 
and  savannas,  like  the  llanos  of  Venezuela,  with 
intervening  tracts  of  woodland  like  those  of  Guiana. 
The  land  is  distinctly  South  American  in  its  aspect, 
in  the  vast  variety  of  its  trees,  and  in  its  general 
vegetable  and  animal  life.  Many  of  the  trees  afford 
valuable  timber,  and  a  large  number  have  bark  with 
poisonous  or  medicinal  qualities.  The  great  ceiba, 
with  its  shoots  falling  to  the  ground  and  taking  root, 
and  with  a  profusion  of  clinging  parasites,  is  held  in 
reverence  by  the  superstitious  blacks ;  some  of  the 
palms,  with  their  smooth  columns  and  great  tufts  of 
broad  leaves,  grow  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in 
height ;  and  everywhere  the  rich  soil  and  warm, 
humid  climate  produce  a  rank  luxuriance  of  vines 
and  plants,  some  with  brilliant  flowers,  which  over- 
run the  face  of  the  earth, save  where  the  vigorous  Para 
grass  takes  possession  and  monopolises  the  ground. 

A  characteristic  of  Trinidad  in  its  physical  aspects 
is  its  mud  volcanoes,  and  a  unique  peculiarity  is  the 
asphalt  lake  in  the  south-west.  There  is  a  mud  vol- 
cano near  the  middle  of  the  island,  one  hundred  and 
thirty-five  feet  high,  rising  above  a  morass,  locally 
called  the  Lagon  Bouffe,  but  those  near  Cape  Icacos 
and  the  asphalt  lake  are  low  conical  hills  surrounded 
by  mangrove  swamps.  While  mud  gushes  out, 
bringing  lumps  of  bitumen  and  sulphur,  and  there 
is  an  appearance  of  boiling,  the  temperature  is  not 


374  ^-^^    WEST  INDIES 

high.  The  asphalt  lake  of  La  Brea  ("  The  Pitch  ") 
is  in  the  south-western  peninsula,  near  the  coast,  and 
ninety  feet  above  the  sea-level.  It  is  reached  up  a 
kind  of  bituminous  glacier,  has  the  appearance  of 
an  exposed  coal-pit,  nearly  circular,  and  half  a  mile 
across,  and  is  surrounded  by  woods  in  which  tall 
palm  trees  are  conspicuous.  Even  upon  its  surface 
are  clumps  of  vegetation,  but  their  existence  is  pre- 
carious. 

The  contents  of  this  huge  receptacle  of  un- 
known depth  are  of  a  vegetable  origin,  like  coal, 
lignite,  and  peat,  and  are  in  a  state  of  instability  on 
account  of  the  warmth  and  of  pressure  from  below, 
which  causes  the  substance  to  rise  in  the  middle  and 
subjects  it  to  a  slow  movement,  breaking  it  into 
irregular  masses,  and  producing  crevices  or  channels, 
which  are  filled  with  water.  As  part  of  the  mass  is 
removed,  its  place  is  filled  again  by  the  pressure  from 
below  upon  the  plastic  material,  and  the  supply 
seems  to  be  inexhaustible.  It  is  mingled  with  a 
good  deal  of  earth,  and  the  soil  about  contains  much 
of  the  pitch,  which  does  not  affect  its  fertility.  Near 
by  on  the  coast  there  are  vents  from  which  petroleum 
flows,  and  even  below  the  water  both  oil  and  asphalt 
come  to  the  surface.  This  spot  is  one  of  the  marvels 
of  the  earth,  and  the  pitch  from  La  Brea,  or  La 
Braye,  as  the  English  call  the  place,  goes  to  the 
composition  of  cement  and  of  paving  material  in 
far-off  cities.  An  American  corporation  has  ob- 
tained a  monopoly  of  the  supply  for  a  long  term  of 
years  at  $60,000  a  year,  and  is  growing  rich  in  paving 
streets  by  the  use  of  "  Trinidad  asphalt." 


TOBAGO  AND  TRINIDAD  375 

This  island  is  watered  by  many  streams,  and  some 
of  them  are  navigable  by  small  craft  for  a  consider- 
able distance.  In  the  northern  part,  flowing  west 
into  the  Gulf  of  Paria,vis  the  Caroni ;  and  farther 
south  the  Gueracuero  falls  into  Naparima  Bay,  an 
inlet  from  the  gulf.  The  Nariva  and  Guartaro,  or 
Ortoir,  reach  the  eastern  coast  by  a  common  delta. 
There  is  hardly  any  rain  from  November  to  April, 
but  very  heavy  dews  which  keep  up  the  vegetation, 
while  from  May  to  October  there  is  much  wet 
weather,  with  frequent  sudden  showers  and  occa- 
sional violent  storms.  The  island  is  not  subject  to 
hurricanes,  but  has  been  shaken  by  earthquakes. 
The  temperature  is  very  equable,  ranging  from  75° 
to  85°,  and  rarely  reaching  90°  in  the  hottest  months ; 
and  the  climate  is  regarded  as  very  healthful.  Ani- 
mal life  is  as  varied  and  abundant  as  vegetable,  and 
includes  most  of  the  species  found  in  the  northern 
part  of  South  America.  Among  them  are  the  pec- 
cary, armadillo,  porcupine,  and  sloth,  a  tiger  cat, 
several  kinds  of  monkeys,  and  a  gentle  variety  of 
deer.  Birds  are  numerous,  and  some  have  brilliant 
plumage,  including  parrots,  parrakeets,  and  hum- 
ming-birds; but  their  ranks  have  been  reduced  by 
the  insatiate  demands  of  civilised  society  for  feath- 
ered adornment.  Insects  are  something  too  plenti- 
ful, and  some  of  them  are  decidedly  obnoxious  to 
comfort ;  but  they,  too,  are  sometimes  brilliant,  even 
illuminating.  Reptiles  are  many,  but  mostly  in- 
nocuous. Turtles  are  less  common  than  in  former 
times,  because  they  have  been  persistently  robbed 
of  their  eggs,  but  the  waters  abound  in  fish  of  many 


376  THE    WEST  INDIES 

curious  kinds,  one  of  which,  called  the  drum  fish, 
makes  music  wherever  it  goes. 

Trinidad,  being  close  to  "  the  main,"  was  not 
at  first  so  completely  neglected  by  the  Spanish 
discoverers  as  most  of  their  smaller  possessions, 
and  they  held  it  longer.  Finding  no  gold  there, 
the  most  that  they  did  with  it  for  a  long  time  was 
to  get  supplies  of  wood  and  water,  and  capture 
the  poor  natives  for  slaves.  As  they  were  Arawaks 
and  not  Caribs,  their  resistance  was  overcome  with- 
out great  difficulty.  In  1588,  the  Spanish  made 
a  settlement  and  founded  San  Jos^  de  Orufla,  still 
known  as  San  Josef,  on  the  Caroni  River,  a  few 
miles  from  the  coast.  Soon  after  that  the  Eng- 
lish began  to  make  perturbing  calls  on  the  way  to 
and  from  Guiana,  and  in  1595,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
made  the  visit  during  which  he  professed  to  be 
so  outraged  at  the  cruel  treatment  of  the  natives 
that  he  captured  San  Josef,  and  considered  whether 
the  island  was  not  worth  keeping.  Lured  on  by 
greater  attractions,  he  concluded  to  leave  it  to  the 
Spanish  governor.  Occasionally  the  corsairs  gave 
the  little  settlement  a  scare  by  prowling  into  the 
gulf,  but  it  was  left  pretty  much  to  itself  and  must 
have  been  a  lonesome  place  for  a  century  or  two. 
In  1783,  the  native  population  had  been  reduced  to 
2032,  and  there  were  only  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
six  white  persons  and  six  hundred  and  five  negro 
slaves  on  the  whole  island,  with  its  vast  wealth  of 
natural  resources  and  attractions.  Soon  after  that  a 
Frenchman  from  Grenada,  named  Roume  de  St. 
Laurent,  got  from  the  Spanish  authorities  at  Cara- 


TOBAGO  AND  TRINIDAD  7)77 

cas  a  suspension  of  the  edict  which  forbade  foreign- 
ers to  settle  in  Spanish  possessions,  and  all  "  good 
Catholics"  were  thereafter  permitted  to  dwell  in 
Trinidad  and  own  property. 

This  brought  settlers  from  the  French  islands, 
and  when  trouble  came  in  Haiti  after  the  French 
Revolution  there  were  many  emigrants  from  there. 
Then  came  the  good  governor,  Don  Josef  Maria 
Chacon,  who  would  not  permit  the  inquisition  or 
monastic  orders  to  get  a  foothold,  and  insisted 
upon  tolerating  colonists  from  all  quarters  who 
would  people  and  develop  the  island.  The  English 
came  as  well  as  others,  the  Spanish  were  soon  in  a 
minority,  and  Chacon  had  a  troublesome  time  with 
his  mixture  of  subjects.  Immigration  had  been 
stimulated  by  grants  of  land,  thirty-two  acres  for 
each  person  and  sixteen  more  for  each  slave  brought 
in.  In  1796-97,  when  the  difificulty  with  the  French 
— royalist  refugees  and  cantankerous  republicans — 
was  at  its  worst,  and  the  English  were  settling  mat- 
ters here  and  there  in  the  West  Indies,  Admiral 
Harvey  and  General  Abercrombie  paid  a  visit  to 
the  Gulf  of  Paria,  coming  down  from  Martinique 
with  7000  troops. 

There  was  a  Spanish  admiral  named  Apodoca 
who  took  refuge  with  his  ships  in  the  deep  Bay  of 
Chaguaramas,  and  Governor  Chacon  was  much  dis- 
traught with  the  visit  of  so  formidable  an  enemy. 
The  upshot  was  surrender  to  the  English,  and 
Apodoca  burnt  his  vessels  rather  than  have  them 
captured,  thereby  vindicating  "  Spanish  honour," 
though  the  island   was  forever  lost.      Lieutenant- 


378  THE   WEST  INDIES 

Colonel  Picton  was  left  in  charge,  and  had  to  use 
severe  measures  to  put  down  anarchy  and  secure 
submission,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens  Trinidad 
was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  perpetuity.  The  only 
stirring  incident  in  its  history  after  that  occurred 
when  Lord  Nelson  came  down  in  1805  ^^  his  chase 
for  a  French  fleet  that  had  gone  the  other  way.  It 
is  reported  that  a  solitary  soldier  in  charge  of  the 
defences  of  the  north  coast,  thinking  it  was  an 
enemy,  pitched  his  only  gun  over  the  cliffs,  blew  up 
his  watch-tower,  and  went  with  all  haste  to  warn  the 
people  of  their  danger. 

The  English  occupation  began  a  new  era  for 
Trinidad,  and  pretty  nearly  all  its  growth  and  pro- 
gress is  a  matter  of  the  present  century.  The  popu- 
lation was  nearly  40,000  in  1838,  and  in  1885  it  was 
171,914,  of  which  about  100,000  consisted  of  negroes 
and  50,000  of  coolies,  chiefly  from  India.  Sugar 
planting  was  first  introduced  in  1787,  and  extended 
rapidly,  but,  the  slave  trade  being  abolished  early  in 
this  century,  Chinese  coolies  were  imported  in  order 
to  keep  up  with  the  demand  for  labour.  The  first 
Hindus  were  brought  over  in  1839,  after  the  aboli- 
tion of  slavery,  under  contract  to  labour  seven  and 
a  half  hours  a  day,  six  days  in  the  week,  for  five 
years,  at  thirteen  cents  a  day.  Contracts  could  be 
renewed  for  one  year  or  five  years,  and  those  who 
remained  ten  years  in  all  were  entitled  to  be  returned 
to  their  own  country  at  the  charge  of  the  contractor. 
The  system  of  coolie  contract-labour  has  been  under 
government  regulation  and  supervision,  and  is  said 
to  have  worked  well.     The  Hindus  live  in  commun- 


TOBAGO  AND  TRINIDAD  379 

ities  by  themselves,  and  preserve  their  habits,  cus- 
toms, and  traditions,  and  are  undoubtedly  better  off 
than  they  ever  were  in  India.  They  are  an  intelli- 
gent, frugal,  and  self-respecting  people,  and  a  large 
proportion  of  them  remain  as  a  permanent  part  of 
the  population.  Their  women  are  especially  fond 
of  adorning  themselves  with  jewelry,  and  the  cus- 
tomary way  of  investing  surplus  savings  is  by  turn- 
ing them  into  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  with  which 
the  persons  of  the  female  members  of  the  family  are 
richly  decorated. 

A  large  part  of  the  area  of  the  island  is  still  cov- 
ered with  forests  and  uncultivated  plains,  hardly 
more  than  one  eighth  of  the  land  being  under  culti- 
vation, and  that  mostly  near  the  west  coast,  where 
the  only  seaports  and  nearly  all  the  towns  are  situ- 
ated. This  part  of  the  island  is  a  rolling  country, 
with  many  sugar  plantations,  palm  groves,  cacao 
and  fruit  gardens,  and  provision  grounds.  The 
sugar  industry  has  suffered  here  as  in  the  other 
islands,  but,  while  it  was  prosperous,  the  cotton, 
coffee,  and  tobacco  for  which  the  soil  and  climate 
were  equally  well  adapted  fell  into  neglect.  Lat- 
terly the  cultivation  of  cacao,  which  affords  a  spe- 
cially fine  chocolate,  has  been  on  the  increase,  and 
coffee,  tobacco,  and  fruits  have  received  more  atten- 
tion. It  is  only  a  question  of  adaptation  to  produce 
almost  anything  that  belongs  to  a  tropical  land  with 
an  exceptionally  rich  soil  and  genial  climate ;  but  the 
whites  constitute  barely  one  tenth  of  a  population 
now  estimated  at  200,000,  or  more,  and  the  coloured 
labour  force  is  not  altogether  tractable  in  its  freedom. 


380  THE   WEST  INDIES 

The  Gulf  of  Paria  affords  a  spacious  harbour,  but 
the  only  port  of  importance,  and  the  capital  and 
chief  town  of  the  colony,  is  Port  of  Spain,  in  the 
angle  where  the  west  coast  turns  along  the  promon- 
tory to  the  Boca  Drago.  There  large  vessels  have 
to  anchor  a  mile  away  from  the  wharves  on  account 
of  a  lack  of  depth  in  the  water.  There  is  deep  water 
in  Chaguaramas  Bay,  but  the  landward  surroundings 
are  unfavourable,  and  its  beach  is  mainly  a  health 
and  pleasure  resort,  like  Mono  Island  near  by.  Port 
of  Spain  is  a  thriving  city  of  35,000  people,  built 
mostly  of  stone,  with  broad,  thickly  shaded  streets 
running  up  from  the  shore  and  intersected  at  right 
angles  with  cross  streets.  Back  of  it  is  a  broad 
savanna  called  Queen's  Park,  having  a  fine  race- 
track at  one  end,  and  beyond  that  is  a  large  botan- 
ical garden  filled  with  the  trees  and  plants  of  the 
tropics  and  many  exotics  from  Europe  and  America. 
In  the  midst  of  this  spacious  and  splendid  garden 
is  the  governor's  palace.  Spreading  beyond  these 
public  grounds  are  the  plantations,  fields,  gardens, 
and  groves  that  furnish  the  products  of  the  land, 
amid  magnificent  palms,  great  cedars  and  ceibas, 
and  other  trees  that  ornament  the  landscape,  though 
in  the  interior  long  stretches  of  road  may  be  found 
which  are  wholly  unshaded  by  foliage  and  exposed 
to  the  sweltering  tropic  sun. 

Within  the  city  are  busy  streets,  some  spacious 
public  squares,  and  a  few  fine  buildings  of  stone. 
The  English  cathedral  stands  on  Brunswick  Square 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  on  Marine  Square, 
with  Avhich  a  popular  promenade  is  connected. 
There  are  several  other  churches,  an  excellent  club, 


TOBAGO  AND  TRINIDAD  38 1 

and  many  comfortable  residences.  Notwithstand- 
ing its  tropical  climate  and  its  Spanish  traditions, 
Port  of  Spain  has  much  the  air  of  a  thriving  Eng- 
lish town,  and  is  on  the  whole  well  kept,  though 
keeping  the  streets  clear  of  unwholesome  refuse  is 
left  chiefly  to  the  black  vultures.  These  ungainly 
and  repulsive  creatures  perch  upon  the  roofs,  flop 
down  into  the  roadways,  halt  gawkily  about,  pick- 
ing up  garbage,  and  make  themselves  so  familiar  as 
to  startle  the  stranger ;  but  they  are  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  law,  and  seem  to  know  it,  on  account  of 
their  useful  public  service.  Near  the  city  is  an  exten- 
sive barracks  for  the  soldiers  who  are  quartered  here. 
It  is  only  a  few  miles  to  the  old  Spanish  capital, 
San  Josef,  which  still  brings  the  quaintness  of  the 
sixteenth  century  into  the  present  time.  Down 
the  coast  about  thirty  miles  is  the  second  city 
and  seaport  of  the  island,  San  Fernando,  but  its 
population  hardly  reaches  7000.  Back  of  it,  sloping 
up  from  the  coast,  is  another  region  of  plantations 
and  fruitful  groves,  and  near  by  is  the  most  char- 
acteristic Hindu  village  on  the  island,  a  point  of 
special  interest  to  visitors.  It  is  ten  miles  farther 
down  this  western  or  gulf  coast  to  La  Braye,  whence 
the  asphalt  shipments  are  made.  The  largest  inland 
towns  are  Tacarigua,  Arouca,  and  Arima,  in  the 
region  of  which  Port  of  Spain  is  the  outlet ;  and 
Montserrat  and  Prince's  Town  are  attractive  villages 
in  the  fruitful  district  back  of  San  Fernando.  These 
towns  are  largely  points  at  which  produce  is  collected 
to  be  sent  to  the  seaports,  and  there  is  some  sixty  or 
seventy  miles  of  railroad  making  the  connections, 
built  by  the  government. 


382  THE   WEST  INDIES 

Trinidad  is  a  Crown  colony,  with  very  little  recog- 
nition of  the  representative  principle  in  its  govern- 
ment. The  governor  is  appointed  by  the  sovereign, 
and  chooses  an  executive  council  of  three  for  him- 
self. The  legislative  council  consists  of  fifteen 
members,  of  whom  seven  are  public  officials  and  the 
others  are  appointed  on  the  selection  of  the  planters 
and  merchants.  There  are  eight  administrative  dis- 
tricts :  St.  George  and  St.  David  in  the  north, 
Caroni,  St.  Andrew,  Victoria,  and  Nariva  in  the 
central  section,  and  St.  Patrick  and  Mayaro  in  the 
south  ;  and  two  municipalities,  Port  of  Spain  and  San 
Fernando.  Port  of  Spain  has  a  local  council  of  six- 
teen members  and  San  Fernando  one  of  ten,  elected 
by  landholders  worth  £\o  a  year  or  more.  The 
public  revenues  of  the  colony,  derived  chiefly  from 
customs  duties,  amount  to  about  $2,500,000  a  year. 
There  is  a  public  debt  of  about  $3,000,000,  incurred 
mostly  in  the  construction  of  railroads.  The  annual 
value  of  exports  exceeds  $10,000,000,  and  the  value 
of  imports  is  about  the  same.  There  is  a  consider- 
able trade  with  Venezuela,  and  regular  and  frequent 
communication  with  England,  with  the  other  West 
Indies,  and  through  them  with  the  United  States. 
Trinidad  has  a  school  system  maintained  by  the 
government,  which  also  gives  aid  to  the  church 
schools.  There  are  two  colleges.  Queen's  Royal 
College  and  the  College  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion. The  possibilities  of  production  and  of  trade 
in  this  island  are  hardly  less  than  those  of  Barbados 
in  proportion  to  size.  It  has  about  the  same  popu- 
lation and  more  than  ten  times  the  area. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 


OFF   THE   VENEZUELA   COAST 


OF  the  islands  off  the  Venezuela  coast  and  be- 
longing to  the  continental  system  of  South 
America,  other  than  Tobago  and  Trinidad,  only  the 
"  Dutch  islands  "  of  Curasao,  Buen  Aire,  and  Aruba 
are  commonly  spoken  of  as  part  of  the  West  Indies; 
but  a  passing  notice  of  those  which  originally  be- 
longed to  Spain  and  passed  to  the  Republic  of  Vene- 
zuela when  its  independence  was  achieved,  seems 
necessary  to  make  the  present  account  complete. 
Columbus  discovered  the  island  of  Margarita  when 
he  left  Trinidad  in  1498.  It  is  only  eight  miles 
from  the  mainland,  and  has  an  area  of  four  hundred 
square  miles.  It  is  almost  divided  into  two  by  a 
depression  in  the  middle  occupied  by  a  lagoon.  In 
the  eastern  or  main  part  Mount  Copei  rises  to  an 
altitude  of  4170  feet,  and  in  the  western  and  smaller 
section  Mount  Macanao  attains  a  height  of  4484 
feet.  The  name  of  the  island  is  derived  from  the 
pearl  banks  on  the  southern  shore,  which  in  recent 
times  have  been  virtually  abandoned  as  no  longer 
profitable.  Similar  banks  exist  on  the  small  islands 
of  Cabagua  and  Coche  near  by  to  the  south. 

383 


384  THE   WEST  INDIES 

Margarita  is  so  largely  occupied  by  rocks,  sand 
dunes,  salt  marshes,  and  the  reefs  that  adorn  its  edges, 
that  its  people  live  chiefly  by  fishing  and  the  handi- 
work of  the  women,  who  make  for  the  Venezuela  mar- 
ket cheap  earthenware,  cotton  stuffs,  and  hats  of  straw 
and  vegetable  fibre.  The  population  is  less  than 
40,000,  and  little  more  than  that  if  we  include  Ca- 
bagua,  Tortuga,  and  all  the  neighbouring  isles.  The 
capital  is  Asuncion,  with  a  population  of  about  3000, 
and  is  the  happy  possessor  of  a  "  miraculous  virgin 
adorned  with  a  robe  of  pearls."  The  ports  of  Pam- 
patar,  Pueblo  de  la  Mar,  and  Pueblo  del  Norte  are 
in  the  eastern  section.  The  island  was  bestowed 
upon  Marceto  Villalobos  in  1524,  ravaged  by  the 
freebooter  Lopez  de  Aguirre  in  1561,  attacked  by 
the  Dutch  in  1662,  and  otherwise  buffeted  in  troub- 
lous times,  but  Spain  held  on  to  it  until  the  revolu- 
tion of  Bolivar,  when  its  fortitude  and  suffering  in 
the  rebel  cause  earned  for  it,  with  the  neighbouring 
islands  of  Hermanos  and  Blanquilla,  the  title  of 
Nueva  Esparta,  or  "  New  Sparta,"  as  a  separate 
state  in  the  new  republic. 

The  group  of  islets  to  the  north-east,  called  the 
Testigos,  or  "  Witnesses,"  was  one  of  the  resorts  of 
Captain  Teach,  or"  Blackbeard,"  the  pirate,  where 
he  was  long  believed  to  have  buried  rich  treasures, 
though  nobody  could  find  them.  Blanquilla  was 
once  occupied  by  a  French  refugee  from  Guade- 
loupe, who  set  up  a  cotton  industry  there;  but  he 
was  driven  out  by  the  Spanish,  who  left  the  island 
to  the  wild  progeny  of  the  cattle  and  dogs  which 
had  been  introduced.     Tortuga,  to  the  west  of  Mar- 


OFF  THE   VENEZUELA    COAST  385 

garita,  is  encircled  by  reefs  called  Tortuguillos,  and 
has  within  its  small  area  a  little  fishing  village. 
Farther  west,  and  part  of  what  the  Spaniards  desig- 
nated as  the  "  Leeward  Islands,"  are  the  three  clus- 
ters of  Orchilla,  Los  Roques,  and  Aves,  belonging 
to  Venezuela.  They  are  composed  of  rocks  and 
reefs  inhabited  by  lighthouse-keepers,  and  visited 
only  by  a  few  fishermen.  There  is  another  Aves, 
or  Bird  Island,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  which  is  the  culminating  point  of  a  ridge  or 
bank,  elsewhere  submerged,  running  parallel  with 
the  main  range  of  the  Lesser  Antilles.  It  is  a  lonely 
spot,  occupied  by  sea-birds,  and  valuable  only  for 
guano  deposits,  and  it  lay  practically  unclaimed 
until  1856,  since  which  time  its  possession  has  been 
conceded  to  Venezuela. 

Curasao  is  the  headquarters  of  the  Dutch  colony 
in  the  West  Indies.  Not  only  the  neighbouring 
islands  of  Buen  Aire  and  Aruba,  but  Saba,  St. 
Eustatius,  and  the  Dutch  part  of  St.  Martin  in  the 
northern  Caribbees,  are  dependencies,  administered 
by  deputies  of  the  governor  of  Curasao.  This  island 
is  nearly  forty  miles  long,  and  has  an  area  of  two 
hundred  and  twenty  square  miles.  Though  it  has 
nearly  30,000  inhabitants,  about  one  third  of  them 
freed  negroes  and  the  rest  a  mixture  of  European 
nationalities  with  a  preponderance  of  Dutch,  its  sur- 
face consists  mostly  of  arid  plains,  with  a  few  fertile 
glens  and  narrow  spaces  made  productive  by  patient 
toil.  There  is  a  deficiency  of  water,  and  the  people 
are  dependent  upon  storing  a  supply  from  the  rain- 
fall.    They  raise  some  maize,   cotton,   sugar-cane, 


386  THE   WEST  INDIES 

tobacco,  and  fruits  and  vegetables;  but  the  chief 
exports  of  the  island  are  salt,  phosphate  of  lime, 
and  the  well  known  Curasao  liqueur,  of  which  the 
chief  ingredient  is  derived  from  a  peculiar  variety 
of  orange,  the  Citrus  aurantium  curassuviensis. 
But  the  larger  business  of  Curasao  is  the  transit 
trade  of  Venezuela  and  Colombia. 

It  has  a  deep  and  well  sheltered  harbour  on  the 
south  coast,  the  bay  of  Santa  Ana,  where  the  capi- 
tal, Willemstad,  is  situated.  This  port  furnishes 
both  vessels  and  crews  for  a  large  coasting  trade, 
and  also  the  bankers,  many  of  them  Jews,  who 
make  the  advances  and  loans  that  give  life  to  the 
trafific.  Willemstad  is  distinctively  a  Dutch  town, 
though  its  population  is  greatly  mixed.  Its  houses, 
though  built  low  and  subject  to  the  conditions  of  a 
tropical  climate  and  the  visitations  of  earthquakes, 
have  a  general  resemblance  to  those  of  Amsterdam ; 
and  the  deep  lagoon  called  the  Schottegat,  which 
extends  inland  from  the  bay,  the  passage  between 
the  city  and  the  western  suburb  of  "  Oberzijde," 
with  its  bridge  of  boats,  and  the  overflowing  swamps 
that  spread  through  the  environs,  suggest  the  watery 
aspect  of  Holland.  The  entrance  to  the  bay  is  de- 
fended by  Fort  Amsterdam  and  separate  batteries; 
men-of-war  often  lie  at  anchor  in  the  Schottegat, 
while  the  quays  of  the  port  of  Curagao  are  generally 
crowded  with  merchant  shipping,  A  peculiar  pa- 
tois, derived  from  many  tongues,  is  common  in  its 
streets. 

This  island  was  discovered  by  Ojeda  in  1499,  and 
called  the  "  Isle  of  Giants,"  whereby  hang  dubious 


OFF  THE  VENEZUELA    COAST  387 

kgends  of  the  stature  of  the  original  inhabitants. 
It  was  settled  by  Spaniards  as  early  as  1527,  but  it 
had  the  happiness  of  possessing  virtually  no  annals 
until  it  was  captured  by  the  Dutch  in  1632,  when 
they  also  took  possession  of  the  outlying  islands  of 
Buen  Aire  to  the  east  and  of  Aruba  to  the  west. 
The  only  interruption  to  their  possession  was  dur- 
ing the  Napoleonic  wars,  when  the  English  captured 
Curasao,  first  in  1798  and  again  in  1806.  It  was  re- 
stored to  Holland  in  18 14,  when  several  dislocations 
in  the  West  Indies  were  rectified. 

Buen  Aire  hardly  has  an  existence  independent  of 
that  of  Curasao.  It  is  some  twenty  miles  off  the 
shore  of  the  latter  to  the  north-east,  and  has  an  area 
of  two  hundred  and  fourteen  square  miles,  but  there 
are  only  about  5000  inhabitants.  They  cultivate 
the  few  productive  acres  in  an  arid  waste  and  share 
in  the  fishing  and  seafaring  pursuits  of  the  neigh- 
bour island,  Aruba  is  the  westernmost  of  this 
group,  and  lies  near  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of 
Maracaybo.  Its  area  is  only  sixty-six  square  miles, 
and  its  population  less  than  8000 ;  but  it  has  more 
cultivated  surface  than  either  of  the  other  Dutch 
islands.  It  suffers  from  lack  of  natural  watercourses 
or  springs,  and  depends  upon  cisterns  and  tidal  wells. 
The  people  consist  largely  of  half-breeds,  partly  de- 
scended from  the  aborigines,  and  there  are  some  in- 
teresting relics  of  antiquity  in  the  island  in  the  form 
of  rock  inscriptions  and  objects  wrought  from  stone 
or  clay.  The  earthenware  is  commonly  embellished 
with  the  heads  of  owls  or  frogs,  and  until  recent 
times  there  were  vestiges  of  old  customs  in  the  burial 


388  THE   WEST  INDIES 

of  the  dead  in  large  cone-shaped  receptacles.  The 
island  was  formerly  called  Azua,  from  a  shrub  which 
grows  there.  It  is  said  that  the  Spanish  conquerors 
found  a  populous  city  upon  it,  rich  in  gold,  hence 
the  name  Oruba,  from  "  oro  hubo,"  "  here  is  gold  "  ; 
but  the  derivation  is  fanciful,  and  the  correct  form 
of  the  name  is  "  Aruba. "  There  are  still  traces  of 
gold  in  the  rocks,  and  the  natives  may  have  accu- 
mulated treasures  when  the  Spaniards  broke  through 
to  appropriate  them.  This  island  is  said  by  geolo- 
gists and  naturalists  to  have  been  the  latest  of  the 
group  to  be  separated  from  the  mainland,  and  it  has 
some  animal  species,  including  a  variety  of  frog,  a 
rattlesnake,  and  a  parrakeet,  which  have  disappeared 
from  Buen  Aire  and  Curasao,  but  are  still  found  on 
the  continent. 


CHAPTER  XL 


THE   WEST   INDIAN   ENIGMA 


THE  unsubmerged  parts  of  what  seems  in  the 
remote  geological  ages  to  have  been  a  vast 
bridge  connecting  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  two 
American  continents  have  been  for  four  centuries 
the  scene  of  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  instruct- 
ive "  continuous  performances  "  in  human  history. 
There  are  signs  that  the  long  drama  may  be  entering 
upon  a  new  phase  with  accelerated  action. 

Looking  back,  we  see  first  the  European  explorer, 
dimly  convinced  of  the  earth's  rotundity  and  of  the 
possibility  of  reaching  the  "  gorgeous  East  "  by  an 
easier  and  safer  route,  if  he  will  only  sail  boldly  to 
the  westward.  He  gropes  bewildered  among  tropi- 
cal islands,  unconscious  that  a  continent  hitherto 
unknown  to  his  side  of  the  world  and  an  ocean  far 
wider  than  that  he  has  crossed  lie  between  him  and 
the  object  of  his  quest.  Litercepted  here,  he  pre- 
pares the  way  for  a  new  empire  to  be  founded  by  the 
proud  and  chivalrous,  the  "  most  Christian,"  power 
of  Spain.  A  dominant  purpose,  devoutly  cherished, 
is  to  extend  a  beneficent  sway  and  a  saving  faith; 

389 


390 


THE   WEST  INDIES 


but  that  purpose  is  lost  in  the  conflict  of  selfish  im- 
pulses and  motives  aroused  in  mere  human  nature 
placed  in  new  conditions. 

On  this  stage  one  race  of  men,  being,  or  assuming 
to  be,  in  an  advanced  stage  of  civilisation,  comes  in 
contact  with  an  "  inferior,"  or  more  backward  race; 
and,  instead  of  "  converting"  it  or  elevating  it,  or 
even  attempting  to  bring  it  forward  to  its  own  state 
of  advancement,  it  proceeds  to  rob,  to  reduce  to  serv- 
itude, to  slaughter,  and  finally  to  exterminate  the 
hapless  people  who  obstruct  the  pathway  of  "  pro- 
gress." This  was  not  peculiar  to  the  Spaniards. 
What  they  did  to  the  mild  and  unresisting  Arawak 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  English  and  French 
did  to  the  fierce  and  self-asserting  Carib  a  hundred 
years  later.  Nor  was  it  peculiar  to  these  islands  or 
to  the  period  of  their  first  occupation  by  Europeans. 
The  same  process  of  plunder  and  extirpation  went 
on  where  the  white  man  and  the  Indian  came  in  con- 
tact on  the  North  American  continent,  and  we  can- 
not confidently  proclaim  that  it  is  ended  yet.  Is 
it  the  necessary  consequence  of  the  meeting  of  su- 
perior and  inferior  races  of  men  on  the  same  ground  ? 

An  alternative  to  extermination  was  long  exhibited 
on  this  West  Indian  stage — slavery,  or  subjection. 
The  Europeans  would  not,  perhaps  could  not,  lift 
up  the  aborigines  and  take  them  along  in  the  career 
of  human  progress,  and  so,  being  confined  within 
narrow  limits,  they  ground  their  life  out ;  but  they 
had  seized  possession  of  a  rich  tropical  land,  needing 
labour  inured  to  the  climate  to  extract  the  riches 
which  they  coveted.     They  did  not  hesitate  to  drag 


THE   WEST  INDIAN  ENIGMA  39 1 

another  "  inferior  race  "  from  its  native  soil  in  Africa 
and  compel  it  to  do  their  work.  They  did  not  em- 
ploy it,  they  did  not  attempt  to  improve  or  elevate 
it,  or  prepare  it  to  advance  and  share  their  destiny. 
They  simply  enslaved  it  and  used  it  to  serve  their 
own  ends  precisely  as  they  would  use  cattle.  Negro 
slavery  in  America  was  planted  in  the  West  Indies 
and  transplanted  to  the  British  colonies  in  North 
America,  to  become  the  heritage  of  the  United 
States,  "  the  land  of  freedom."  How  this  relation 
of  the  races  worked  is  known  by  experience  and 
observation  to  a  generation  still  surviving,  and 
there  are  living  Christians  who  sincerely  regret  its 
extinction. 

It  is  surely  an  evidence  of  progress  in  the  white 
man  that  slavery  has  been  extinguished,  even  where 
it  was  so  long  regarded  as  essential  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  Christian  civilisation  ;  but  how  has  it  left  the 
relation  of  the  "superior"  and  the  "inferior" 
races  ?  We  see  the  anomaly  of  this  great  group  of 
islands,  almost  connecting  the  eastern  shores  of  the 
two  Americas,  still  divided  in  possession  among 
several  nations  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic. 
They  were  the  cradle  of  all  America,  and  they  are 
and  of  right  ought  to  be  peculiarly  American  ;  but 
for  the  most  part  they  are  still,  or  were  until  the 
other  day,  subject  to  European  powers.  Is  this 
necessarily  to  continue  on  account  of  the  relation  of 
the  races  and  the  incompatibility  of  that  relation 
with  the  principles  of  American  freedom  and  of 
American  government  ? 

Cuba  has  been  made  independent,  and  may  remain 


392  THE   WEST  INDIES 

independent;  but  a  majority  of  the  people  of  Cuba 
have  long  been  of  the  white  race,  and  where  that  race 
predominates  it  rules.  The  people  of  Cuba  may  be 
capable  of  self-government,  or  may  become  so. 
Puerto  Rico  has  com.e  into  the  possession  of  the 
United  States  by  the  fortunes  of  war,  but  a  still 
larger  proportion  of  its  people  are  descendants  of 
white  settlers.  They  are  mostly  of  Spanish  origin, 
and  are  ill-prepared  to  take  a  full  share  in  their  own 
government;  but  so  long  as  the  island  remains  in  a 
territorial  condition,  the  race  question  will  be  less 
serious  in  its  government  than  it  is  in  some  of  the 
oldest  States  of  the  Union. 

In  Jamaica  and  the  other  islands,  a  vast  majority 
of  the  people  are  of  the  coloured  race.  They  are  no 
longer  in  slavery,  but  they  are  distinctly  a  subject 
race.  In  the  English  colonies,  there  is  no  pretence 
of  equality,  political  or  social,  and  no  recognition  of 
a  policy  of  preparation  for  the  exercise  of  equal 
rights.  Such  representation  as  is  permitted  is  based 
upon  a  suffrage  so  qualified  by  property-ownership 
as  to  exclude  nearly  all  the  negroes  from  its  exercise ; 
but  to  exclude  them  effectually  from  all  share  in  the 
government  only  the  slightest  application  is  given  to 
the  representative  principle.  Each  colony  and  each 
island,  however  populous,  is  governed  by  a  small 
number  of  Englishmen,  sent  out  by  the  home  gov- 
ernment to  exercise  the  prerogatives  of  the  Crown, 
with  much  less  restraint  than  they  are  subject  to  in 
Great  Britain.  This  is  because  the  people  of  the 
islands  are  frankly  assumed  to  be  incapable  of  self- 
government,  and  there  is  no  thought  of  giving  them 


THE   WEST  INDIAN  ENIGMA  393 

the  right.  The  principles  of  representative  govern- 
ment are  applied  to  English  colonies  which  arc 
peopled  by  Englishmen,  or  at  least  by  white  men, 
but  those  which  are  inhabited  by  "  inferior  races," 
or  in   which    any    inferior    race    predominates,    are 

Crown  colonies,"  and  are  ruled  arbitrarily  by  the 
home  government  through  appointed  agents.  The 
superior  race  rules,  and  the  position  of  the  inferior 
race  is  one  of  subjection.  There  is  nothing  in  the 
English  theory  of  government  which  demands  a 
recognition  of  equal  rights  or  requires  a  policy  of 
giving  political  power  to  all  the  people  and  fitting 
them  for  its  exercise.  Jamaica  may  remain  a  Crown 
colony  indefinitely  and  be  practically  governed  by 
a  dozen  men  sent  from  England,  and  its  race  ques- 
tion will  be  answered  by  the  military  power. 

Are  these  islands  capable  of  self-government,  or 
can  the  American  principle  of  government  by  the 
people  be  safely  applied  to  them  ?  Haiti  has  been 
answering  that  question  nearly  all  this  century,  and 
Santo  Domingo  has  been  giving  a  somewhat  differ- 
ent answer  a  greater  part  of  the  same  time.  A 
population  almost  wholly  negro  has  been  left  to  the 
experiment  of  self-government  in  Haiti.  It  has  been 
in  form  a  republic,  a  kingdom,  again  a  republic,  an 
empire,  and  a  republic  yet  again ;  but  at  no  time 
have  the  people  governed  themselves.  They  have 
been  ruled  by  a  black  autocrat  or  a  coloured  oli- 
garchy, distinguished  by  various  degrees  of  incapac- 
ity and  despotism  ;  and  if  there  has  been  progress  or 
improvement,  it  has  been  very  slow.  In  Santo  Do- 
mingo, with  a  larger  intermixture  of  white  blood, 


394  THE   WEST  INDIES 

but  still  a  predominance  of  the  "  inferior  race," 
there  has  been  a  better  condition  of  things,  but  not 
a  very  promising  degree  of  success  in  the  experi- 
ment. It  has  been  very  far  from  real  self-govern- 
ment by  the  people,  and  almost  equally  far  from 
efificient  and  progressive  government. 

Here,  then,  is  the  West  Indian  enigma.  Is  the 
American  soil  first  occupied  and  longest  held  by 
the  white  man,  to  continue  subject  to  alien  powers 
and  impervious  to  what  we  hold  to  be  the  American 
spirit  in  the  government  of  men  ?  Is  it  to  present 
a  permanent  spectacle  of  two  races  of  mankind  un- 
able to  live  together  unless  one  is  master  and  the 
other  slave,  or  one  ruling  and  the  other  subject ;  or 
is  it  to  become  the  theatre  for  the  solution  of  the 
race  problem  by  elevating  and  improving  the  inferior 
and  reconciling  the  proud  spirit  of  the  superior  to  a 
relation  of  fraternity,  a  condition  of  equality,  a 
chance  of  liberty,  through  mutual  helpfulness  ? 

The  old  Spanish  colonies  on  the  continent  have 
been  working  out  the  experiment  of  self-govern- 
ment, with  many  failures  but  perceptible  progress. 
They  are  slowly  undergoing  a  process  of  American- 
ising, though  Latin  Americanism  is  not  the  same  as 
Anglo-Saxon  Americanism,  and  it  will  be  long  be- 
fore the  two  blend  into  one.  But  the  Spanish- 
American  republics  are  little  troubled  with  the  race 
question.  Cuba,  with  the  drawback  of  recent  servi- 
tude to  Spanish  power  and  the  traditions  of  long 
subjection,  has  now  the  negro  factor  in  its  problem 
of  free  government. 

The  United   States  is  struggling  with   the  race 


THE   WEST  INDIAN  ENIGMA  395 

problem  comparatively  free  from  other  dii^culties; 
and  as  a  nation  it  is  acting  upon  the  theory  that  the 
races  can  and  must  live  together  on  a  footing  of 
political  equality.  No  edict  of  a  paper  constitution 
can  suddenly  subdue  the  determination  of  the  white 
to  rule,  or  lift  the  black  to  an  equal  capacity  for  ruling ; 
and  in  States  where  the  "  inferior  race  "  is  so  strong 
in  numbers  as  to  threaten  to  gain  control,  means  are 
found  to  keep  it  in  subjection  in  spite  of  the  let- 
ter and  the  plain  intent  of  written  constitutions. 
Though  the  sudden  transformation  from  the  help- 
lessness of  abject  servitude  to  a  safe  exercise  of 
political  power,  boldly  risked  as  it  was  by  a  deliber- 
ate constitutional  change,  is  made  impossible  by 
laws  of  nature  that  cannot  be  amended,  the  adop- 
tion of  the  theory  induces  the  slow  and  gradual 
process  of  adjustment  to  it  in  practice.  We  must 
educate,  elevate,  and  improve  the  coloured  citizen, 
and  solve  the  race  question  in  our  States  by  har- 
mony, and  not  antagonism  or  subjection. 

Can  this  process  be  carried  into  the  West  Indian 
islands,  where  the  African  race  was  planted  in  slav- 
ery by  the  white  man,  where  it  flourishes  physically 
as  the  white  race  does  not,  and  where  it  seems  des- 
tined to  predominate  in  numbers  because  the  clim- 
ate is  congenial  to  its  blood  ?  Is  the  tropical  climate 
a  bar  to  the  presence  of  American  energy  and  enter- 
prise, and  to  the  diffusion  of  American  ideas  and  the 
true  American  spirit,  which  might  in  process  of  time 
develop  a  capacity  for  popular  government  and  dis- 
place the  bonds  of  European  subjection  with  the  ties 
of  American  brotherhood  ?     It  is  not  a  question  of 


396 


THE   WEST  J X DIES 


equality  of  capacity  or  of  condition,  but  of  equality 
of  rights  and  of  opportunity,  under  which  the  power 
and  influence  of  superiority  would  be  legitimately 
exercised  in  government  by  the  consent  and  for  the 
benefit  of  all,  and  there  would  be  no  pretension  of 
a  prerogative  inherent  [n  the  blood  of  a  race,  any 
more  than  in  an  inherited  caste. 

The  United  States  has  taken  possession  of  the 
island  of  Puerto  Rico,  and  on  that  outpost  of  the 
Antilles  the  genius  of  America  encounters  a  sphinx 
which  propounds  the  enigma  of  the  future  destiny 
of  all  the  West  Indies. 


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.ONG  lo. 
CROO 


INDEX 


Abaco,  Great  and  Little,  3,  119 
Abercrombie,  Lord,  attacks  San 

Juan,  269 
Abercrombie,  Sir  Ralph,  recovers 

St.  Lucia,  342  ;  takes  Trinidad, 

377 

Aborigines,  general  characteris- 
tics, 25-30 

Acadians,  249 

Acklin,  4,  122 

Adamanay,  227 

Aguadilla,  262,  266,  276 

Aguado,  Juan,  45 

Agueynaba,  266,  267 

Aguirre,  Lopez  de,  384 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  treaty   of,   328, 

346 
Albemarle,      Lord,     grantee    of 
islands  in  Bahamas,  77  ;  com- 
mander at  capture  of  Havana, 

95 

Alexander  VL,  Pope,  bull  divid- 
ing Spanish  and  Portuguese 
possessions,  51,  71 

American  Mediterranean,  2,  259, 

Andros,  position,  3  ;  description, 

121 
Anegada,     one    of     the    Virgin 

Islands,  8,  294,  295 
Anguilla,    situation   and    extent, 

8  ;   part   of    Leeward    Islands 


Colony,  290  ;  description,  302, 

303 

Anguilletta,  303 

Annotto,  200 

Antigua,  situation  and  extent,  9  ; 
origin  of  name,  41  ;  taken  by 
English,  75  ;  captured  by 
French,  93  ;  part  of  Leeward 
Islands  Colony,  290  ;  descrip- 
tion and  history,  306-309 

Antilles,  origin  of  the  term,  4 

Antonio,  Cape,  128,  130,  141 

Apodoca,  Spanish  admiral  in 
Trinidad,  377 

Arawaks,  origin  and  character, 
25  ;  islands  inhabited  by,  25  ; 
in  Puerto  Rico,  282  ;  in  Toba- 
go, 368  ;  in  Trinidad,  376 

Archipelago,  of  Columbus,  or 
American,  2  ;  how  formed,  13- 
16  ;  first  inhabitants,  24 

Arecibo,  262,  275 

Ariguanabo,  lake  in  Cuba,  132 

Arroyo,  262,  277,  284 

Artibonite,  river  of  Haiti,  230 

Aruba,  situation  and  extent,  12  ; 
taken  by  the  Dutch,  73  ;  de- 
scription, 387 

Ascension,  name  given  by  Colum- 
bus to  Grenada,  46,  351 

Asphalt  lake,  Trinidad,  374 

Aux  Cayes,  227,  234,  249 

Ayscue,  Admiral,  at  Barbados, 
93.  369 


397 


398 


INDEX 


Ayuntamiento,  town   council,  in 

Cuba,  146 
Azua  de  Compostela,  252 


B 


Baez,  Buenaventura.  255,  256 

Bahama  Channel,  15 

Bahamas,  extent,  3  ;  political 
connection,  7  ;  area  and  popu- 
lation,   12  ;   general   structure, 

14  ;  connection  with  continent, 

15  I  original  inhabitants,  26  ; 
English  occupation,  76  ;  de- 
scription and  history,  115-127  ; 
resources  and  products,  117, 
iiS  ;  the  different  islands,  119- 
123  ;  first  settlements,  125  ; 
industries  and  trade,  126  ; 
government,   126,  127 

Bahia  Honda,  port  of  Cuba,  156 

Baianet,  227 

Balboa,  discovers  the  Pacific,  6g 

Balcarres,  Lord,  suppresses  ma- 
roons, 214 

Baracoa,  first  settlement  in 
Cuba,  56  ;  the  present  town, 
161  ;  landing  of  insurgent 
chiefs,  183 

Barahona,   252 

Barbados,  position,  6  ;  extent, 
II  ;  first  colonised,  75,  78; 
political  revolt,  93  ;  slavery  in, 
105,  113  ;  separate  colony,  22S  ; 
effect  of  volcanic  eruption  in 
St.  Vincent,  344  ;  description, 
355-357  ;  history,  357-36i  ; 
people  and  government,  362- 
364  ;  education,  364  ;  capital, 
364,  365  ;  hurricanes,  366 

Barbuda,  situation  and  extent,  g  ; 
first  settled,  75  ;  part  of  Lee- 
ward Lslands  Colony,  290  ; 
description  and  history,  305, 
306 

Bartholomew,  brother  of  Colum- 
bus, 45.  See  also  Colon, 
Bartolome 

Basin,  or  Bassin,  sec  Basse  End      ; 

Basle,  treaty  of,  23S,  255  j 


Basse  End,  300,  301 

Basses-Terres,  304 

Basse-Terre,  capital  of  St.  Christ- 
opher, 314 ;  section  of 
Guadeloupe,  318  ;  capital  of 
Guadeloupe,  321 

Batabano,  port  of  Cuba,  156 

Bayamo,  town  in  Cuba,  relics  of 
aborigines,  27  ;  caves  near, 
131  ;  revolutionary  conspiracy, 
177  ;  battle,  185 

Bayamon,  town  in  Puerto  Rico, 

275 

Beauharnais,  Marquis  de,  337 

Behechio,  cacique  of  Xaragua, 
52 

Bemini  Keys,  120 

Bequia,  348 

Berry  Isles,  120 

"  Bims,"  "  Bimshire,"  365 

"  Blackbeard,'  the  pirate,  87- 
89  ;  headquarters  in  the 
Bahamas,  125  ;  resort  off 
Margarita,  384 

"  Black  Eagle,"  173 

Black  River,  203 

"  Black  Warrior,"  175 

Blanco,  Gen.  Ramon,  190-198 

Blanquilla,  384 

Blockade  of  Cuban  ports,  194 

Bluefields  Bay,  200 

Blue  Mountains,  201 

Bobadilla,  Francisco  de,  super- 
sedes Columbus,  47  ;  ship- 
wrecked, 47,  48 

Boca  Drago,  371 

Boca  Serpiente,  370 

Bohio,  native  name  for  a  part  of 
Haiti,  39,  231 

Borinquen,  native  name  for 
Puerto  Rico,  31,  54,  266 

Bottom,  town  of,  310 

"  Boucan,"  81 

Boyer,  General,  241-243,  255 

Brazil,  Portugal's  title  to,  51 

Breda,  treaty  of,  94,  309,  313 

Bridgetown,  359,  364 

Broa  Bay,  142 

Brooke,  Gen.  J.  R.,  197,  284- 
286 


INDEX 


399 


Brooks,  Henry,  183 
Buccaneers,  origin  of  term,  Sr, 

82  ;     character    and    exploits, 

82-86  ;    headquarters   at   Port 

Royal,    210 ;     resort     at     St. 

Thomas,  296 
Buccaneers'  Fort,  142 
Buchanan,  President,  proposal  to 

purchase  Cuba,  178 
Buen  Aire,  situation  and  extent, 

12  ;  taken  by  the  Dutch,  73  ; 

description,  387 
Byron,  Admiral,  g6 


Cabanas,  port  of  Cuba,  156 

Cabral,  Jose  Maria,  256 

Cadiz,  Columbus  arrives  at,  45, 

Caicos,  the,  relics  of  aborigines, 
27  ;  description,  122  ;  politi- 
cal connection,  127 

Caimanera,  landing  United  States 
marines  at,  196 

Calleja  Isasi,  captain -general 
of  Cuba,  184 

Camaguey,  native  name  of  Puerto 
Principe,  Cuba,  152 

Campos,  General  Martinez,  gov- 
ernor-general of  Cuba,  178, 
181,  184-187 

Canary  Islands,  visited  by  Co- 
lumbus, 35  ;  emigrants  to 
Cuba,  156 

Cannibalism,  practised  byCaribs, 
32 

Canovas  del  Castillo,  igo 

Caparra,  267 

Cape  Beata,  226 

Cape  Engano,  226 

Cape  Haitien,  226,  249 

Cape  Icacos,  372 

Cape  Rojo,  277 

Capesterre,  313,  319 

Cape  Tiburon,  225 

Cape  Verde,  visited  by  Colum- 
bus, 46 

Capote,  Domingo  Mendez,  191, 
198 


Caracas,  earthquake,  343 

Caraibe,  219 

Cardenas,  157 

Cariacu,  349 

Caribbean  Sea,  how  formed,  2  ; 
once  a  plain,  13  ;  depth,  15  ; 
submarine  division,  15 

Caribbees,  7  ;  visited  by  English 
explorers,  72  ;  granted  to  the 
Earl  of  Carlisle,  75  ;  first 
trench  colonists,  78  ;  contests 
for  possession,  92-102  ;  appli- 
cation of  the  term,  287 

Caribs,  origin  and  character,  25  ; 
islands  inhabited  by,  25  ;  de- 
scription, 31  ;  habits  and 
customs,  32-34  ;  Columbus 
first  meets,  41  ;  attack  upon 
Puerto  Rico,  268  ;  in  Antigua, 
308  ;  in  Dominica,  327  ;  in 
Martinique,  332  ;  in  St.  Vin- 
cent, 346  ;  in  Grenada,  351  ; 
in  Tobago,  368 

Carib's  Leap,  the,  351 

Carlisle,  Earl  of,  grant  of 
Caribbees,  75  ;  governor  of  Ja- 
maica, 215  ;  grant  of  Barba- 
dos, 359 

Carlisle  Bay,  359 

Cartagena,  68  ;  attacked  by  buc- 
caneers, 85 

Casa  Blanca,  fort  at  Havana, 
154  ;  house  of  Ponce  de  Leon, 

275 

Casa  Colon,  55,  253 

Cassard,  Jacques,  87 

Castellanos,  Adolfo  Jimenez,  198 

Castries,  338,  340,  341 

Cathay,  Cuba  thought  by  Colum- 
bus to  be  part  of,  44 

Catherine  Hill,  202 

Cat  Island,  position,  3  ;  descrip- 
tion, 131 

Cauto,  river  in  Cuba,  131 

Cayey,  277 

Caymans,  5,  201 

Cayo  Romano,  133 

Cayos  de  las  Doce  Leguas,  134 

Central  America,  as  Spanish  pos- 
session, 72 


400 


INDEX 


Cerro  de  Aripo,  372 
Cervera,  Spanish  admiral,  195 
Cespedes,  Carlos  Manuel  de,  177, 

17S 
Chacon,  Jose  Maria,  377 
Chaguaramas  Bay,  38(3 
Charles  I.,    of    England,    grants 

Caribbees  to  Earl   of  Carlisle, 

75 
Charles  II.,  of  England,  makes 

grants    to    Lord    Willoughby, 

75  ;    loyalty   of   Barbados   to, 

360 
Charlestown,  316 
Charlotte  Amalia,  2Q5 
Charlotte  Town,  327 
Chorrera,  Torre  de,  142 
Christianstaed,  300 
Christophe,  Haitian  general,  240, 

241 
Cibao,  interior  district  of  Haiti, 

29,  39,  227 
Ciboneys,  or  Cebuneys  (also  Sib- 

oneys),  native  tribe  in  Cuba,  27 
Cienfuegos,  158 
Cinco  Villas,  district    of   Cuba, 

141.  152 

Cipango,  Columbus's  misconcep- 
tions regarding,  2,  39 

Cisneros  y  Betancourt,  Salvador, 
178,  185 

Cleveland,  President,  message 
relating  to  Cuba,  192 

Climate,  general  character,  21  ; 
of  Bahamas,  ir8  ;  of  Cuba, 
138  ;  of  Jamaica,  206-208  ;  of 
Haiti,  232,  233  ;  of  Puerto 
Rico,  264,  265  ;  of  Barbados, 
357  ;  of  Trinidad,  375 

Coamo,  262,  276 

Coanabo,  cacique  of  Cibao  or 
Maguana,  42,  52,  228 

Cobre,  mountains  in  Cuba,  129 

Cobre  River,  203 

Codrington,  305,  306 

Codrington  College,  364 

Coffee,  first  cultivation,  10^  ;  in- 
troduced into  Martinique,  332 

Colombo,  Cristoforo,  Italian 
name  of  Columbus,  35 


Colon,  Bartolome,  or  Bartolo- 
meo,  brother  of  Columbus,  45, 
46,  253 

Colon,  Cristobal,  Spanish  form 
of  name  of  Columbus,  35 

Colon,  Diego,  son  of  Columbus, 
governor  of  Hispaniola,  55  ; 
sends  out  colonising  expedi- 
tions, 55-57  ;  burial  place,  254 

Colon,  town  in  Cuba,  157 

Colubanama,  cacique  of  Higuey, 
52 

Columbus,  Christopher,  miscon- 
ception as  to  the  Indies,  i,  2  ; 
original  purpose  of  voyages, 
24 ;  first  voyage  of  discovery, 
25-40  ;  second  voyage,  41-45  ; 
third  voyage,  45-47  ;  fourth 
voyage,  47-50 ;  extent  of  ex- 
plorations, 50  ;  error  regard- 
ing Cuba,  147  ;  memorials 
of,  253  ;  remains  of,  254  ; 
first  landing  at  Puerto  Rico, 
266  ;  names  the  Virgins,  293  ; 
names  Antigua,  30S  ;  lands  on 
Guadeloupe,  322  ;  discovers 
Dominica,  327  ;  discovers  Mar- 
tinique, 330  ;  discovers  St. 
Lucia,  341  ;  discovers  St.  Vin- 
cent, 346  ;  discovers  Grenada, 
35  I  ;  discovers  Trinidad,  370  ; 
mistake  about  South  America, 
371  ;  discovers  Margarita,  383 

Concepcion  de  la  Vega,  252 

Congress,  U.  S.,  resolution  relat- 
ing to  Cuba,  194  ;  declaration 
of  war  with  Spain,  195 

Coolies,  in  Jamaica,  217  ;  in 
Martinique,  334  ;  in  St.  Vin- 
cent,  347  ;  in    Trinidad,  378, 

379 
Coral   polyps,  work   among   the 

islands,  22  ;  in  the  Bahamas, 

ir6;  on   coast    of     Barbados, 

356 
Coral    reefs,    on   Cuban    coast, 

133-135  ;  on  the  coast  of  Haiti, 

227  ;    on   coast   of    Barbados, 

356 
Corozal,  262 


INDEX 


401 


Corsairs  and  rovers,  61,  63-68 

Cortez,  Hernando,  among  first 
colonists  in  Cuba,  56,  141 

Cotton,  first  cultivation,  104 

Courteen,  Sir  William,  359 

Crittenden,  Colonel,  175 

Cromwell,  sends  fleet  to  West 
Indies,  79  ;  suppresses  disor- 
der in  Barbados,  360 

Crooked  Island,  position,  4  ;  Isa- 
bella of  Columbus,  37  ;  de- 
scription, 122 

Crooked  Island  Passage,  122 

Crusoe's  island,  369 

Cruz,  Cape,  129 

Cuba,  early  misconceptions  re- 
garding, 2  ;  position  and  ex 
tent,  5  ;  political  connection 
7  ;  aboriginal  inhabitants,  27 
discovery  by  Columbus,  38 
'southern  coast  explored,  44 
first  colony,  56  ;  taken  by  the 
English,  95  ;  slavery  in,  loS- 
112;  physical  characteristics, 
128-140  ;  mountains,  129,  130  ; 
rivers,  131-133;  reefs  and 
keys,  134  ;  ports,  134,  135  ; 
minerals,  135  ;  natural  pro- 
ducts, 136  ;  animals,  137  ;  cli- 
mate, 138,  139  ;  sections,  140; 
history  and  government,  141- 
150  ;  early  settlements,  141  ; 
different  names,  142  ;  first  fort- 
ifications, 143  ;  establishment 
of  plantations,  144  ;  progress 
and  growth,  144  ;  powers  of 
governor-general,  145  ;  system 
of  administration  under  the 
Spanish,  146-150  ;  provinces, 
151,  152  ;  judicial  districts, 
153  ;  cities  and  towns,  153- 
162  ;  population,  163-165  ; 
economic  conditions,  165-168  ; 
commerce,  168,  169;  education 
and  religion,  169-171  ;  revolu- 
tionary movements,  172-181  ; 
"  Black  Eagle,"  173  ;  annexa- 
tion, 174  ;  Lopez  expeditions, 
174  ;  "  Black  Warrior,"  175  : 
"  Ostend     Manifesto,"      176; 


oppressive  government,  177  ; 
insurrection  of  1868-78,  177  ; 
court-martial  of  Havana  stu- 
dents, 179  ;  barbarities  of 
Valmaseda,  179  ;  i\i&  Virginhts 
affair,  179,  180;  remonstrances 
of  United  States  Government 
i8o  ;  treaty  of  El  Zanjon,  181  ; 
renewed  oppression,  182  ;  in- 
surrection of  1895-98,  183  ; 
organisation  of  provisional 
government,  184  ;  military 
operations,  185,  186  ;  policy  of 
Martinez  Campos,  186  ;  Gen. 
Weyler's  campaign,  187  ; 
Maceo  in  the  west,  188  ;  death 
of  Maceo,  189  ;  Gomez  retires 
to  the  east,  189  ;  a  campaign 
of  devastation,  189,  190  ;  the 
"reconcentrados,"i90;  Blanco 
supersedes  Weyler,  190 ;  policy 
of  pacification,  190,  191  ;  Cu- 
ban constitution,  191  ;  message 
of  President  Cleveland,  192  ; 
message  of  President  McKin- 
ley,  192,  193  ;  the  Maine  blown 
up,  193  ;  special  message  of 
President  McKinley,  194  ;  res- 
olution of  American  Congress, 
194  ;  declaration  of  war,  195  ; 
Spanish  fleet  at  Santiago,  195  ; 
American  troops  land  near 
Santiago,  196;  battles  on  land 
and  sea,  196,  197  ;  surrender 
of  Santiago  and  terms  of  peace, 
197  ;  Spain  evacuates  island, 
197  ;  American  occupation, 
197  ;  preparation  for  independ- 
ent government,  198  ;  end  of 
Spanish  sovereignty  in  West- 
ern world,  198 
Cubitas,  caves  of,  131  ;  capi- 
tal   of    Cuban    revolutionists, 

185 
Cudjo,  chief  of  maroons,  212 
Culebra,  6,  260,  277 
Cura9ao,   situation    and    extent, 

12  ;  first  settled,  73  ;  taken  by 

the     Dutch,    92  ;  description, 

385,  3S6 


402 


INDEX 


Currents,  atmospheric,  produc- 
tion of  trade-winds  and  hurri- 
canes,  19-21 

Currents,  oceanic,  effect  among 
the  islands,  17  ;  production  of 
Gulf  Stream,  iS 

Cushing,  Caleb,  American  Min- 
ister at  Madrid,  180 


D 


Daiquiri,  ig6 

Danish  Islands,  So,  295-299 

Darien,  limit  of  Columbus's  ex- 
plorations, 48  ;  limit  of  Spanish 
Main,  60 

Denmark,  islands  belonging  to, 
8,  80  ;  abolishes  slave  trade, 
109  ;  emancipates  slaves,  iii  ; 
description  of  the  islands  be- 
longing to,  295-298 

Deseada,  Spanish  name  of  De- 
sirade,  41,  321 

I)esirade,   situation   and  extent, 

9  ;  discovery,  41,  321 
Dessalines,  Haitian  general,  240, 

241 
Deux  Mamelles,  319 
Diamond  Rock,  334 
Diaz,  discoverer  of  river  Ozama, 

47 
Districts  (judicial)  of  Cuba,  153 
"  Dogs,  The,"  rocks  at  head  of 

the  Caribbees,  8,  302 
Dominica,  situation  and  extent, 

10  ;  origin  of  name,  41  ;  first 
attempt  to  take  possession,  77  ; 
contest  for,  92,  94,  97  ;  naval 
battle  near,  98  ;  part  of  Lee- 
ward Islands  Colony,  290-292  ; 
description,  325-327  ;  history, 

327-329 

Dominican  Republic,  see  Santo 
Domingo,  Republic  of 

Don  Christopher's  Cove,  49 

Dragon  Mouth,  371 

Drake,  Francis,  accompanies 
Hawkins  on  slave-trading  trip, 
66  ;  privateering  expeditions, 
66-68  ;   attack  on   Santo  Do- 


mingo, 67,  234 ;  attack  on 
San  Juan,  268  ;  death,  68 

Dry  River,  203 

Duarte,  Juan  Pablo,  244 

Dumas,  Alexandre,  249 

"  DumlD  Dog,"  28,  118,  137 

Dunmore  Town,  120 

Duparquet,  governor  of  Mar- 
tinique, 351 

Duplessis,  French  adventurer, 
77,  322 

Dutch,  the,  send  trading  vessels 
10  islands,  68,  73  ;  take  pos- 
session of  St.  Eubtatius  and 
Saba,  75  ;  Cura9ao,  92  ;  final 
share,  102 

"  Dutch  West  Indies,"  6,  11, 
73  ;  slavery  in,  11 1,  112  ;  Saba 
and  St.  Eustatius,  310,  311  ; 
Curafao,  Buen  Aire,  and 
Aruba,  383-388 


E 


Earl  of  Carlisle,  receives  grant 
of  Caribbees,  75  ;  governor  of 
Jamaica,  215  ;  grantee  of  Bar- 
bados, 359 

Earthquakes,  at  Port  Royal,  210, 
211  ;  in  Haiti,  233,  248  ;  in 
Antigua,  309  ;    in   Venezuela, 

343 

Edwards,  Bryan,  statement  re- 
garding slave  trade,  105 

Egmont,  352 

El  Caney,  161,  196 

El  Dorado,  legend  of,  60  ;  search 
for,  69 

Eleuthera,  position,  3  ;  descrip- 
tion, 120 

El  Zanjon,  treaty  of,  181 

English  Harbour,  307 

Equatorial  current,  cause  and 
effect,  17 

Esnambuc,  French  adventurer, 
visits  St.  Kitt's,  74,  312  ;  takes 
Martinique,  77,  332 

Espanola,  name  given  by  Colum- 
bus to  island  of  Haiti,  39, 
255 


INDEX 


403 


Esperanza,  192 

Esquivel,  Juan  de,  takes  posses- 
sion of  Jamaica,  55,  209 

Etang  du  Vieux  Bourg,  353 

Evangelita,  name  given  by  Co- 
lumbus to  the  Isle  of  Pines, 

134.  141 

"  Ever  Faithful  Isle,"  origin  of 
term,  145 

Eyre,  Governor,  suppresses  in- 
surrection in  Jamaica,  218 


Fajardo,  260,  262,  277 
Falmouth,  200,  222 
Fauna  of  islands  in  general,  22 
Fer-de-lance,  the,  320,  340 
Ferdinand,   King  of  Spain,    de- 
sire for  conversion  of  lieathen, 
53  ;  authorises  making  slaves 
of  Lucayans,  54 
Fernandina,  name  given  by  Co- 
lumbus to  Long    Island,   37  ; 
name  of  Cuba  at  one  time,  143 
P'ichilingos,  368 
Filibuster,  origin  of  term,  83 
Fish,  Hamilton,  U.  S.  Secretary 

of  State,  180 
Flora  of  islands  in  general,  22 
P'lorida,    2  ;    as  Spanish  posses- 
sion, 72  ;  visited  by  Ponce  de 
Leon,  26S 
Florida  Straits,  15 
Flushingers,  in  Tobago,  368 
Formidable,  flagship  of  Admiral 

Rodney,  98,  333 
Fort  Amsterdam,  386 
Fort-de-France  Bay,  330 
Fort-de-France,  city,  335 
Fort  Gustave,  305 
Fort  William,  304 
Fortune  Island,  122 
France,  contests   title  of   Spain 
to   islands,    71  ;    contends  for 
possession    in    the    Caribbees, 
92-102  ;  establishes  colony  on 
Haiti,  235  ;  share  in  St.  Mar- 
tin,  303  ;    takes    Guadeloupe, 
323  ;  Martinique,  332 


Freebooter,  83 

Froude,    J.    A.,    on    origin    of 
"  Barbados,"  358 


G 


Galeota,  Cape,  372 

Garcia,  Calixto,  188,  192,  198 

Garcia,  Manuel,  183 

"  Gardens  of  the  King,"  133 

"  Gardens  of  the  Queen,"  44, 
48,  134 

Geffrard,  General  Fabre,  244 

George  Town,   352 

Gibara,  first  landing-place  of 
Columbus  in  Cuba,  38,  161 

Gibaros,  282 

Golfo  de  la  Balena,  370 

Golfo  de  las  Flechas,  40 

Gomez,  Maximo,  183,  192 

Gonaive,  Gulf  of,  225 

Gonzalez,  Ignacio,  256 

Gordon,  leader  of  insurrection  in 
Jamaica,  218 

Gordon,  General  W.  W.,  285 

Government,  of  Bahamas,  126  ; 
of  Cuba,  145-149  ;  of  Jamaica, 
215,  219;  of  Haiti,  246;  of 
Puerto  Rico,  170,  271  ;  of 
Windward  Islands  Colony, 
289  ;  of  Leeward  Islands  Col- 
ony, 290-293  ;  of  Gaudeloupe, 
324  ;  of  Martinique,  336  ;  of 
Barbados,  359-363  ;  of  Trini- 
dad, 382 

Grand  Bay,  304 

Grand  Etang,  350 

Grande-Terre,  319 

Grand  Khan,  misconceptions  of 
Columbus  about  the,  2,  38, 
48 

Gran  Piedra,  La,  mountain  in 
Cuba,  130 

Grant,  President,  message  on 
Cuba,  181 

Grasse,  Count  de,  French  ad- 
miral, battle  with  Rodney,  96, 

9S,  333 
Great  Abaco,  3,  119 
Great  Bahama,  3,  119 


404 


INDEX 


(ireat  Britain,  contests  title  of 
Spain  to  islands.  71  ;  contends 
for  possessions,  92-102 

Great  Cayemite,  227 

Greater  Antilles,  what  constitute, 
4  ;  area  and  population,  1 2  ; 
connection  with  continent,  15; 
separation,  16 

Great  Exuma,  position,  4  ;  de- 
scription, 121 

Great  River,  203 

Green  Island,  200 

Grenada,  situation  and  extent, 
II  ;  discovery,  46  ;  first  settled, 
78  ;  contests  over,  95-99  ;  part 
of  Windward  Islands  Colony, 
288,  2S9 ;  description,  349- 
354;  history,  351,  352;  har- 
bours, 352,  353  ;  government 
and  people,  353,  354 

Grenadines,  situation  and  extent, 
II  ;  part  of  Windward  Islands 
Colony,  288,  2S9  ;  description, 

348,  349 

Grenville  Bay,  352 

Grey,  Sir  John,  323 

Gro's  Islet,  333,  338 

(jrosse  Montagne,  319 

Guacanagari,  cacique  in  Haiti, 
39.42 

Guadeloupe,  situation  and  extent, 
9  ;  origin  of  name,  41  ;  first 
occupation,  77 ;  contests  for 
possession,  92,  94,  95,  99  ; 
description,  318-322  ;  history, 
322,  323  ;  population  and  gov- 
ernment, 324 

Guaimaro,  178 

Guajaibon,  Pan  de,  130 

Guanabacoa,  city  of  Cuba,  156 

Guanahani,  native  name  of  San 
Salvador,  or    Watling  Island, 

Guanahatabibes,  aboriginal  tribe 

in  Cuba,  25 
Guanica,  262,  276,  277,  284 
Guantanamo,     Velasquez     lands 

near,    56  ;    American    marines 

land  there,  196  ;  General  Miles 

sails  from,  284 


Guarico,  Indian  village  in  Haiti, 

39. 
Guarionex,  caci'jue  of    Samana, 

45 

Guayama,  276,  284 

Guayanilla,  262 

Guiana,  first  colonised,  71 

Guichen,  Count  de,  French  ad- 
miral, 96 

Guines,  town  in  Cuba,  156 

Gulf  of  Arrows,  40 

Gulf  of  Gonaive,  225 

Gulf  of  Mexico,  how  formed,  2  ; 
once  a  plain,  13  ;  depth,  15 

Gulf  of  the  Whale,  370 

Gulf  Stream,  origin  of,  18 

Gustavia,  304 

H 

Haiti,  island  of,  position  and 
extent,  15,  225  ;  political  di- 
vision, 7  ;  preliistoric  relics, 
25  ;  aboriginal  inhabitants,  29; 
discovery  by  Columbus,  38  ; 
original  division  and  chiefs, 
52 ;  division  between  Spain 
and  France,  loi,  235  ;  slavery 
in,  109,  no  ;  size  and  contour, 
225,  226  ;  coast  line  and  har- 
bours, 226,  227  ;  outlying  isl- 
lands,  227  ;  mountains,  227- 
229  ;  rivers,  229,  230  ;  lakes, 
230,  231  ;  minerals,  231,  232  ; 
vegetation,  232;  animals, 
232  ;  climate,  232,  233  ;  earth- 
quakes, 233  ;  first  settlements, 
233,  234  ;  the  Spanish  and 
French  colonies,  235,  236  ;  ef- 
fect of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, 236-238  ;  Spanish  colony 
ceded  to  France,  238  ;  under 
the  rule  of  Toussaint  L'Ouver- 
ture,  238,  239  ;  conflict  for 
independence,  239-242  ;  estab- 
lishment of  the  Haitian  Re- 
public, 242 

Haiti,  Republic  of,  first  estab- 
lished, 242  ;  division  and  popu- 
lation,   243  ;    revolutions   and 


IKDEX 


405 


Haiti,  Republic  of — Continued. 
insurrections,  243-245  ;  gov- 
ernment, 246 ;  character  of 
the  population,  246,  247 ; 
principal  cities,  248,  249  ;  for- 
eign trade,  249,  250 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  316 

Hamilton,  Lady,  316 

Harbour  Island,  120 

Havana,  destroyed  by  corsairs, 
64  ;  captured  by  English,  95  ; 
founding  of  city,  142 ;  taken 
by  British,  144  ;  description, 
153-156 

Hawkins,  Sir  John,  as  a  slave- 
trader,  60,  65,  66  ;  quarrel 
with  Drake  and  death,  67 

Heinrich,  Baldwin,  269 

Henri  I.,  "  King  of  the  North," 

243 
Henry,  General  Guy  V.,  2S5 
Herrera,  Spanish  historian,  303 
Heureaux,  Ulisses,  256,  257 
Hidalgos,  Pass  of,  43 
Hindu  coolies  in   Trinidad,  378, 

379 

Hippolyte,  Louis  M  o  d  e  s  t  i  n 
Florvil,  president  of  Haiti,  245 

Hispaniola,  Latinised  form  of 
Espafiola,  39,  52 

Hobson,  Lieutenant,  196 

Holguin,  caves  near,  131  ;  the 
town,  161 

Holland,  her  West  Indian  pos- 
sessions, 102,  310,  311,  383- 
3S8.      See  Netherlands 

Homenage,  Tower  of,  253 

Honduras,  Sea  of,  15 

Honduras  visited  by  Columbus, 
48 

Hood,  Sir  Samuel,  95,  98,  333 

Hopetown,  119 

Huevos,  372 

Huguenots,  in  Tobago,  369 

Hugues,  Victor,  323 

Humacao,  262,  277 

Hurricane,  how  caused,  20  ;  ef- 
fects, 21  ;  in  Cuba,  140  ;  in 
Puerto  Rico,  265  ;  in  Antigua, 
309  ;  in  St.  Lucia,  342  ;  in  St. 


Vincent,    345  ;    in     Barbados, 
366 


Ile-i-Vache,  227 

Inagua,  Great  and  Little,  4, 
122 

Indian,  why  applied  in  America, 
2 

Indies,  the,  origin  and  applica- 
tion of  term,  i,  2 

Inquisition,  in  Cuba,  148  ;  ex- 
cluded from  Trinidad,  377 

Insurrections,  in  Cuba,  177-181, 
1S3-191  ;  of  maroons  in  Ja- 
maica, 212-214  ;  of  negroes 
in  Jamaica,  218  ;  in  Haiti, 
237-240  ;  of  slaves  in  Mar- 
tinique, 334 

Isabela  Segunda,   277 

Isabella,  city  of,  founded  by 
Columbus,  43,  45,  46 

Isabella,  name  given  by  Colum- 
bus to  Crooked  Island,  37 

Isabella,  Queen  of  Spain,  dis- 
approves of  making  slaves  of 
natives  of  islands,  45 

Islas  del  Pasaje,  260 

"  Isle  of  Giants,"  386 

Isle  of  Pines,  129,  134,  151 


J 


Jackson,  Colonel,  plundered 
Santiago  de  la  Vega,  209 

Jacmel,  227 

Jamaica,  position  and  extent,  5, 
199  ;  original  inhabitants,  28  ; 
discovered  by  Columbus,  44  ; 
first  settlement,  55  ;  taken  by 
the  English,  79,  2io ;  first 
maroons,  90  ;  contemplated 
attack  by  De  Grasse,  98  ;  ab- 
sentee planters,  106  ;  slavery 
in,  107  ;  effect  of  emancipa- 
tion, 112,  216  ;  coast  line  and 
Ijays,  199,  200  ;  outlying 
islands,  201  ;  mountains,  201, 
202  ;  rivers,   202,  203  ;  miner- 


4o6 


INDEX 


J  amaica —  Continued. 

als,  203  ;  vegetation,  203,  204  ; 
animals,  205,  206 ;  climate, 
206-208  ,  first  settlement,  209; 
first  colonists,  210;  founding 
of  Port  Royal,  210  ;  destruc- 
tion of  Port  Royal,  211  ; 
founding  of  Kingston,  211  ; 
attacked  by  the  French,  21 1  ; 
insurrections  of  the  maroons, 
212-215  ;  the  colonial  govern- 
ment, 215  ;  effect  of  Rodney's 
victory,  216  ;  result  of  aboli- 
tion, 216,  21.7  ;  insurrection 
of  blacks,  217,  218  ;  change 
in  the  government,  219  ;  coun- 
ties and  parishes,  219,  220 ; 
religion  and  education,  220, 
221 ;  judiciary,  221  ;  city 
of  Kingston,  221,  222  ;  other 
cities  and  towns,  222  ;  popu- 
lation and  industries,  222, 
223  ;  material  condition,  223, 
224 

Jatil)onico,  river  in  Cuba,  132 

Jeremie,  249 

Jervis,    Sir  John,  English  naval 
commander,  gg,  323 

Jimaguayu,     meeting  -  place     of 
Cuban  Assembly,   184 

Jordan,  Gen.  Thomas,  178 

Josephine,  Empress,  birthplace, 
336 

Juana,  name  given  by  Columbus 
to  Cuba,  38,  143 

Junta,  the  Cuban,  183 


K 


"Key  of  the  New  World" 
(Havana),  154 

Kidd,  Captain,  8g 

Kingston,  capital  of  Jamaica, 
igg,  221,  222 

Kingstown,  capital  of  St.  Vin- 
cent, 345,  347 


La  Brea,  or  La  Braye,  374,  3S1 


Lacret,  Cuban  general,  185 

Lagon  Bouffe,  373 

La  Grange,  General,  32S 

La  Playa,  262,  276 

Las  Casas,  Bartolome,  "  Apostle 
of  the  Indies,"  57  ;  condemns 
treatment  of  natives,  57,  5S  ; 
among  first  colonists  of  Cuba, 
141 

Las  Casas,  Don  Luis,  governor- 
general  of  Cuba,  144 

Las  Guasimas,  196 

Las  Islas  de  .Arenas,  38 

Laws  of  the  Indies,  145 

Lee,  Gen.  P'itzhugh,  consul- 
general  at  Havana,  ig4  ;  mili- 
tary commander,  ig7 

Leeward  Islands,  origin  and 
application  of  the  term,  6,  7  ; 
288,  385 

Leeward  Islands  Colony,  2go-2g3 

Leclerc,  General,  239,  240 

Legitime,  General,  245 

Leogane,  248 

Leon,  Ponce  de,  lands  on  Puerto 
Rico,  54 ;  founds  San  Juan, 
54,  55,  267  ;  invades  Florida, 
26S 

"  Les  Amis  des  Noirs,"  236 

Lesser  Antilles,  4  ;  their  extent, 
6  ;  area  and  population,  12  ; 
geological  structure,  16  ;  con- 
tests for  possession,  92-102  ; 
application  of  the  term,  287 

Liamuiga,  Carib  name  of  St. 
Kitt's,  312 

Libano,  Monte,  caves  of,  in 
Cuba,  131 

Liberte,  24g 

Liguanea,  plain  of,  203 

"  Little  Venice,"  371 

"  Llave  del  Nuevo  Mundo,"  154 

L'Olive,  French  adventurer,  77, 
322 

Lolonois,  or  I'Olonnois,  French 
buccaneer,   84 

Long  Island,  discovery,  4  ;  relics 
of  aborigines,  27  ;  Fernandina 
of  Columbus,  37  ;  description, 


INDEX 


407 


Lopez,  Narciso,  174,  175 
Louisiana,    as    Spanish    posses- 
sion, 72 
L'Ouverture,  Toussaint,  238-240 
Lucayan  Islands,  see  Bahamas 
Lucayos,  or  Yucayos,  natives  of 
Bahamas,   26  ;    kidnapped   for 
slaves,  54 
Ludlow,  Gen.  Wm.,  197 
Luquillo,  262 


M 


Maceo,  Antonio,  1S3-189 

Maceo,  Jose,  183-188 

Macias,  Governor-General,   285 

McKinley,  President,  reference 
to  Cuba  in  annual  message, 
192  ;  special  message  on  Cuba, 
194 

Madanino,  island  of  Amazons, 
40 

Madiana,  native  name  of  Mar- 
tinique, 330 

Maine,    the,    U.   S.  battle-ship, 

193 
Maintenon,  Madame  de,  337 
Maisi,  Cape,  27,  38 
Manigat,  General,  245 
Manzanillo,  bay,  226 
Manzanillo,  city   in    Cuba,   161, 

178 
Margarita,    island,     discovered, 

46  ;  description,  383,  384 
Margarita,  Pedro,  43,  44 
Marie  Galante,  situation  and  ex- 
tent, 9  ;    origin  of  name,  41  ; 

description,  322 
Mariel,  port  of  Cuba,  156 
Marigot,  304 
Mariguana,  4,  122 
Marin,  Sabas,  Spanish  general  in 

Cuba,  186,  187 
Marlborough,  Earl  of,  359 
Marooning,  go 
Maroons,  origin  in  Jamaica,  89, 

90,  212  ;  insurrections  of ,  212- 

215 
Martha  Brae  River,  203 
Marti,  Jose,  183,  184 


Martinique,  situation  and  extent, 
10  ;  discovery,  48  ;  taken  by 
the  French,  77  ;  contests  over, 
92,  95,  99  ;  description,  330- 
332  ;  history,  333,  334  ;  indus- 
trial condition,  334,  335  ;  gov- 
ernment, 336 

Martyr  d'Anghiera,  Peter,  4 

Masso,  Bartolome,  185,  191,  198 

Matanzas,  caves,  131 

Matanzas,  city,  156 

Matanzas,  Pan  de,  130 

Matanzas,  province,  152  ;  rav- 
aged by  insurgents,  186 

Matthew  Town,  122 

Mayaguez,  262,  276,  285 

Mayari,  river  in  Cuba,  132 

Mayas,  aborigines  of  Yucatan, 
27 

Maynard,  Lieutenant,  captures 
the  pirate  "  Blackbeard,"  87 

Mendez,  Diego,  49 

Mcrrirnac,  the,  U.  S.  naval  ves- 
sel, 195 

Mexico,  as  Spanish  possession, 
72 

Mexico,  Gulf  of,  2,  13,  15 

Miles,  General  Nelson  A.,  takes 
Puerto  Rico,  2S4,  285 

Mississippi  River,  effect  in  pro- 
ducing Gulf  Stream,  18 

Moca,  263 

Mole  St.  Nicholas,  38,  225,  248 

Mona,  island  off  Puerto  Rico, 
44,  260 

Mona  Passage,  5,  16,  259 

Monkey  Hill,  314 

Mono,  island  off  Trinidad,  372 

Montagu,  Lord.  346 

Montbar,  French  buccaneer,  84 

Monte  Cristi,  mountain  in  Haiti, 
40,  43  ;  mountain  range,  228 

Monte  Cristi,  province  of,  252 

Montego  Bay,  200,  222 

"  Montpelier  of  the  West,"  317 

Montserrat,  island  of,  situation 
and  extent,  9  ;  discovery  and 
name,  41  ;  taken  by  English, 
75  ;  captured  by  French,  93  ; 
part  of  Leeward  Islands  Col- 


4o8 


INDEX 


Montserrat — Conti7iued . 

ony,      290-292  ;      description, 

316.  317 
Montserrat,    town    in    Trinidad, 

381 
Moore.  Admiral,  323 
Moore,  Sir  John,  342 
Morant  Keys,  201 
Morgan,  Sir  Henry,  buccaneer, 

85 

Morne  des  Sauteurs,  551 

Morne  du  Diamant,  331,  333 

Morne  Fortunee,  341 

Morne  Garou,  343 

Morro  Castle,  at  Havana.  143  ; 
at  Santiago  de  Cuba,  160  ;  at 
San  Juan,  273 

Mountains,  of  Cuba,  I2g  ;  of  Ja- 
maica, 201,  202  ;  of  Haiti, 
227-221; ;  of  Puerto  Rico,  261 

Mount  Diahlotin,  325 

Mount  Hillably,  356 

Mount  Maitland,  350 

Mount  Misery,  314 

Mount  Naparima,  372 

Mount  Pelee,  331 

Mount  Tamana,  372 

N 

Naguabo,  262,  277 

Napoleon,  sends  expedition  to 
Haiti,  239  ;  re-establishes  slav- 
ery in  Guadeloupe,  323 

Narrows,  the,  315 

Nassau,  3  ;  first  settled,  77  ;  de- 
scription. 119;  rendezvous  of 
blockade-runners,  125 

Natividad,  or  Navidad,  La, 
founded  by  Columbus,  39  ;  de- 
stroyed, 42 

Navios,  372 

Nelson,  Lord,  hunting  the 
1*  rench  fleet,  100  ;  marriage  in 
Nevis,  316  ;  at  Barbados,  361  ; 
at  Trinidad,  378 

Netherlands,  contests  title  of 
Spain  to  islands,  71,  92  ;  share 
in  St.  Martin,  303  ;  Saba  and 
St.  Eustatius,  310,  311  ;  Cura- 


sao, Buen  Aire,  and  Aruba, 
383-388 

Nevis,  situation  and  extent,  9  ; 
first  settled,  74  ;  part  of  Lee- 
ward Islands  Colony,  290  ;  de- 
scription, 315,  316 

New  Providence,  3  ;  first  settle- 
ment, 76  ;  description,  119 

Neyba,  Bay  of,  226 

Nieves,  315 

Nina,  a  caravel  of  Columbus, 
35  ;  returns  to  Spain,  45 

Nisbet,  Fanny,  316 

Nissage-Saget,  General,  244 

Nombre  de  Dios,  attacked  by 
Drake,  66.  68 

Nueva  Esparta,  384 

Nuevitas,  152,  159 

O 

Oberzijde,  3S6 

Ocampo,  explores  Cuban  coast, 
141 

Ocoa,  Ray  of,  226 

Oge,  Vincent,  237 

Ojeda,  Don  Alonzo  de,  an  offi- 
cer of  Columbus,  44,  45,  47  ; 
accompanies  Vespucci,  371  ; 
discovers  Cura5ao,  386 

Old  Harbour,  200 

Olize  Blossom,  first  English  ves- 
sel to  visit  Barbados,  78,  358 

Orangetown,  31 1 

Organos,  mountains  in  Cuba, 
130 

Orinoco,  river,  effect  upon  Trini- 
dad, 373 

Orinoco,  valley,  abode  of  Ara- 
waks  and  Caribs,  25  ;  limit  of 
Spanish  Main,  60 

"  Ostend  Manifesto,"  176 

Ovando,  Nicolas  de,  governor 
of  Espanola,  47,  49 

Ozama,  river  in  Santo  Domingo, 
47.  230 


Pacific   Ocean,   connection    uMth 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Caribbean 


INDEX 


409 


Pacific  Ocean — Continued. 

Sea,  13  ;  Drake's  cruise  upon, 

65 

Palma,  Tomas  Estrada,  185 

Palos,  Columbus  starts  from, 
35  ;   returns  to,  40 

Panama,  burnt  by  buccaneers,  85 

Pando,  Spanish  general,  182,  186 

Paradise  Peak,  303 

Paria,  Gulf  of,  Columbus  enters, 
46,  370  ;  description,  380 

Paris,  treaty  of,  95,  323 

"Pearl  of  the  Antilles,"  origin 
of  the  term,  136 

Pedro  Bank,  201 

Penn,  Admiral,  and  Venables, 
capture  Jamaica,  79,  210,  360 

"  Peter  the  Great,"  sobriquet  of 
buccaneer,  84 

Petion,  General,  241 

Petit  Anse,  present  site  of  Co- 
lumbus's Navidad,  40 

Petit  Goave,  234 

Philipsburg,  304 

Pico  Tarquino,  mountain  in 
Cuba,    129 

Picton,  Lieut. -Colonel,  governor 
of  Trinidad,  378 

Pinar  del  Rio,  city  of  Cuba,  156 

Pinar  del  Rio,  province  of  Cuba, 
151  ;  occupied  by  insurgents, 
186-188 

Pinta,  one  of  Columbus's  cara- 
vels, 35 

Pinzon,  Martin  Alonzo,  com- 
panion of  Columbus  on  his 
first  voyage,   36,  38,  40 

Pinzon,  Vicente  Yanez,  compan- 
ion of  Columbus  on  his  first 
voyage,  36 

Piracy,  beginning  of,  in  West 
Indies,  6r,  63-68  ;  after  the 
buccaneering  period,  87-89 

Piton  Vauclin,  331 

"  Pitons,  The,"  339 

Pitt's  Town,  122 

Plantain  Garden  River,  203 

Plymouth,  317 

Pococke,  Admiral,  lays  siege  to 
Havana,  95 


Pointe-a-Pitre,  321,  324 

Point  Galera,  372 

Polk,  President,  proposes  to  pur- 
chase Cuba,  174 

Ponce,  276 

Pope  Alexander  VI.,  bull  divid- 
ing possessions  of  Spain  and 
Portugal,  51,  71 

Port-a-la-Paix,  249 

Port  Antonio,  200,  222 

Port-au-Prince,  Bay  of,  225 

Port-au-Prince,  city,  233,  238, 
248 

Port  Maria,  200,  222  ;  maroon 
insurrection  near,  213 

Port  Morant,  200,  222 

Port  Mula,  277 

Porto  Bello,  or  Puerto  Bello, 
attacked  by  buccaneers,  85 

Port  of  Spain,  380,  381 

Port  Royal,  headquarters  of  buc- 
caneers, 83,  200,  210  ;  de- 
stroyed by  earthquake,  210, 
211 

Portsmouth,  327 

Portugal,  title  to  eastern  lands, 
51  ;  engages  in  slave  trade, 
103 

Portuguese,  in  St.  Vincent,  347 

Potrerillo,  mountain  in  Cuba, 
130 

Prevost,  Sir  George,  328 

Prince  Rupert's  Bay,  324,  327 

Prince's  Town,  381 

Privateering,  63-70,  85 

Providence  Channel,  116,  iig 

Pueblo  Nuevo,  156 

Puerta  de  Tierra,  275 

Puerto  Bello,  or  Porto  Bello, 
takes  the  place  of  Nombre 
de  Dios,  68  ;  attacked  by 
buccaneers,  85 

Puerto  Plata,  city,  226,  255 

Puerto  Plata,  province,  252 

Puerto  Principe,  city   of   Cuba, 

149  .     . 

Puerto    Principe,     province     of 

Cuba,   152 
Puerto  Rico,  position  and  extent, 

5  ;  political  connection,  7  ;  ab- 


J.IO 


INDEX 


Puerto  Rico — Continued. 

original  inhabitants,  30  ;  dis- 
covered by  Columbus,  42,  266  ; 
Ponce  de  Leon  takes  posses- 
sion, 54,  55,  267  ;  becomes 
territory  of  the  United  States, 
102  ;  slavery  in,  loS,  113  ; 
physical  characteristics,  259- 
265  ;  coast  line,  260  ;  outlyintj 
islands,  260,  261  ;  character  of 
surface,  261  ;  rivers,  261,  262  ; 
minerals,  262,  263  ;  vegetation, 
263  ;  animals,  263,  264  ;  soil 
and  climate,  264,  265  ;  first 
settlement,  267  ;  origin  of  the 
name,  267  ;  fate  of  the  first 
colony,  268  ;  desolate  condi- 
tion, 269  ;  rapid  development, 
269,  270  ;  government,  270, 
271  ;  departments,  271,  272  ; 
ports  and  towns,  273-277  ;  in- 
dustrial condition,  278-280  ; 
railroads  and  telegraph,  2S0, 
281  ;     commercial    condition. 

281  ;    social    condition,     281, 

282  ;  archaeology,  282,  283 ; 
United  States  takes  possession, 
284-286 

Puits  Bouillants,  319 
Punta  Brava,  189 


Quisqueya,  native  name  of  part 
of  Haiti,  39 


Ragged  Islands,  38,  123 
Raleigh,     Sir    Walter,    captures 

San  Josef,  Trinidad,  70,  376 
"  Reconcentrados  "  in  Cuba,  igo 
Redonda,  316 

Regla,  suburb  of  Havana,  156 
Relics  of  aborigines,  27,  30,  33, 

387 
Remedios,  caves,  131  ;  the  city, 

141,  158 
Revolution,  attempts  at,  in  Cuba, 

172-181  ;  in    Haiti,    243-245  ; 

in  Santo  Domingo,  255-257 


Rio  Cauto,  river  in  Cuba,  131 
Rio  del  Oro,  name  given  by  Co- 
lumbus to  the  Yaqui  River,  40, 

43 

Rio  Grande  de  Loiza,  283 

"  Road  of  the  Virgins,"  294 

Roberts,  Bartholomew,  his  rules 
of  piracy,  88 

Rochambeau,  General,  240 

Rodney,  Admiral,  first  in  West 
Indies,  95 ;  takes  St.  Eusta- 
tius,  q6  ;  battle  with  French 
fleet  off  Dominica,  98,  333  ; 
statue  at  Kingston,  216 

Roldan,  46 

Roseau,  325,  327 

Rovers  and  corsairs,  61,  63-68 

Rum  Cay,  4,  37,  122 

Ryswick,  treaty  of,  ends  bucca- 
neering, 86  ;  effect  upon  pos- 
session of  islands,  94,  loi,  235, 
313 


Saba,   situation   and    extent,    9  ; 
taken  by  the  Dutch,  75  ;  de- 
scription, 310,  311 
Sagasta,  Praxedes  Mateo,  190 
Sagua  la  Grande,  city  in  Cuba, 

Sagua  la  Grande,  river  in  Cuba, 

131 

St.  Ann's  Bay,  refuge  of  Colum- 
bus, 49,  200 

St.  Bartholomew,  or  St.  Bart, 
situation  and  extent,  8  ;  first 
occupied,  76 ;  description  and 
history,  305 

St.  Christopher,  or  St.  Kitt's, 
situation  and  extent,  g  ;  origin 
of  name,  41  ;  first  settlement, 
74  ;  early  contests  for,  92,  94  ; 
partof  Leeward  Islands  Colony, 
290-292  ;  description  and  his- 
tory, 312-315 

St.  Domingue,  French  colony  in 
Haiti,  235 

St.  Eustatius,  situation  and  ex- 
tent, 9  ;  taken  by  the  Dutch. 


INDEX 


411 


St.  Eustatius — Continued. 

75  ;  seized  by  French  and  re- 
stored to  Holland,  94 ;  cap- 
tured by  Rodney,  96  ;  descrip- 
tion, 311 

St.  George's,  352 

St.  John,  city,  290,  307,  30S 

St.  John,  island,  situation  and 
extent,  8  ;  description,  293,  29S 

St.  Josef,  see  San  Josef 

St.  Kitt's,  see  St.  Christopher 

St.  Laurent,  Roume  de,  376 

St.  Louis,  227 

St.  Lucia,  situation  and  extent, 
10  ;  discovery,  48  ;  first  settled, 
78  ;  contests  over,  95—99  ;  part 
of  the  Windward  Islands  Col- 
ony, 288,  289;  description,  338- 
340  ;  history,  340-342  ;  hurri- 
cane, 342 

St.  Marc,  248 

St.  Martin,  situation  and  extent, 
8  ;  discovery,  42  ;  first  occu- 
pied, 76,  93  ;  description  and 
history,  303,  304 

St.  Nicholas,  Cape  (Mole),  38, 
225,  248 

St.  Pierre,  331,  332,  336 

St.  Thomas,  situation  and  extent, 
8  ;  comes  into  possession  of 
Denmark,  80  ;  description, 
293-298 

St.  Ursula,  Virgin  Islands  named 
for,  7,  42,  293 

St.  Vincent,  situation  and  extent, 
10  ;  discovery,  46  ;  first  occu- 
pied, 78  ;  contests  over,  95- 
99  ;  part  of  the  Windward 
Islands  Colony,  288,  289;  de- 
scription, 342-345  ;  volcanic 
eruption,  343,  344  ;  hurricane 
of  1898,  345  ;  history  and  peo- 
ple, 346  ;  capita],  347 

Saintes,  Les,  situation  and  ex- 
tent, 9  ;  description,  322 

Salnave,  Sylvestre,  244 

Salomon,  president  of  Haiti,  244 

Salt  Key  Bank,  123 

Sam,  General  Tiresias  Augustin 
Simon,  president  of  Haiti,  245 


Samana,  bay,  visited  by  Colum- 
bus, 40,  226 
Samana,  province  of.  252 
Samana,  tril)e  in  Haiti,  40 
Sampson,    W.  T.,    U.   S.    naval 

officer,  195 
.San  Antonio,  cape,  128,  130,  141 
.San  Antonio,  river,  132 
San  Cristobal,  town  in  Cuba,  142 
San  Diego,  river  in  Cuba,  133 
San  Diego,  town  in  Cuba,  156 
San  Domingo  Improvement  Com- 
pany, 258 
San  Fernando,  381 
San  German,  276,  285 
San  Josef,  in  Trinidad,  captured 

by  Sir  W.  Raleigh,  70,  376 
San  Juan   Bautista,   name  given 
by  Columbus  to  Puerto  Rico, 
42.  266 
San  Juan,  Cuba,  battle  at,  196 
San  Juan   de  los   Remedios,   see 

Remedies 
San  Juan  de  Maguana,  252 
San  Juan  de  Puerto  Rico,  found- 
ed, 54,  267  ;  attacked  by  Drake, 
67,   2&8  ;  taken  by  Dutch    ad- 
miral, 73,  269  ;  attacked  by  the 
Duke    of    Cumberland,    268 ; 
description,  273,  274 
San  Lorenzo,  255,  277 
San  Lucar,  Columbus  sails  from, 

San  Martin,  see  St.  Martin 

San  Nicolas,  see  St.  Nicholas 

San  Pedro,  252 

San  Salvador,  first  island  dis- 
covered by  Columbus,  37,  122 

Santa  Ana  Bay,  386 

Santa  Barbara,  252 

Santa  Clara,  city  in  Cuba,  158 

Santa  Clara,  Count  of,  governor- 
general  of  Cuba,  145 

Santa  Clara,  province  of  Cuba. 
152 

Santa  Cruz,  situation  and  ex- 
tent, 7  ;  discovery,  42  ;  revolt 
of  slaves,  iii  ;  description, 
299-301 

Santa  Cruz  del  Seybo,  252 


412 


INDEX 


Santa  Cruz  del  Sur,  Cuban  As- 
sembly at,  198 

Santa  Gloria,  name  given  by 
Columbus  to  St.  Ann  Bay,  49 

Santii  Maria,  one  of  the  vessels 
of    Columbus,    35  ;    wrecked, 

39 

Santa  Maria  de  la  Concepcion, 
name  given  by  Columbus  to 
Rum  Cay,  37 

Santana,  General  Pedro,  255 

Santiago,  name  given  by  Colum- 
bus to  Jamaica,  44 ;  at  one 
time  name  of  Cuba,  143 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  city,  Cortez 
sails  from,  56  ;  corsair  enters 
harbour,  64  ;  founding  of,  141  ; 
description  of,  159-161 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  province,  153 

Santiago  de  la  Vega,  original 
name  of  Spanish  Town,  56, 
200,  209 ;  attacked  by  Eng- 
lish, 93  ;  plundered  by  the 
English,  2og 

Santiago  de  los  Caballeros,  252 

Santocildes,  Spanish  general, 
185 

Santo  Domingo,  city,  founded, 
46,  47  ;  capital  of  Espanola, 
52  ;  attacked  by  Drake,  67, 
234  ;  Cuban  conspirators  in, 
183  ;  description  of,  253,  254 

Santo  Domingo,  province  of, 
252 

Santo  Domingo,  Republic  of, 
area  and  population,  251;  prov- 
inces and  districts,  252  ;  charac- 
ter of  the  five  provinces,  252, 
253  ;  the  capital  city,  253,  254 ; 
character  of  the  northern  dis- 
tricts, 254,  255;  history,  255, 
256  ;  government,  257  ;  religion 
and  education,  257  ;  industrial 
and  commercial  condition,  257, 
258 

Santo  Domingo,  Spanish  colony 
in  Haiti,  235 

Santo  Espiritu,  141,  158 

Santo  Tomas  de  Vanico,  43 

Saona,  island,  227 


.Sargasso  .Sea,  36 

Savana  la  Mar,  200 

Schley.  \V.  S..  U.  S.  naval 
officer,  195,  285 

Schotttgat,  the,  386 

Schwan,  General,  284,  285 

"  Scotland,"  in  Barbados,  355 

Serpent  Mouth,  370 

"  Seven  Years'  War,"  effect  in 
West  Indies,  94  ;  capture  of 
Havana  during,  144 

Sevilla,  in  Cuba,  196 

Sevilla  d'  Oro,  first  town  in 
Jamaica,   55,  209 

Seville,  Columbus  goes  to,  49 

Seybo,  province  of,  254 

.Shafter,  Gen.  Wm.  R.,  196 

Shirley,  Sir  A.,  attack  upon 
Jamaica,  209 

Siboney,  landing-place  of  Ameri- 
can troops,  196 

Sickles,  General,  U.  S.  Minister 
at  Madrid,  180 

Sierra  Cayey,  261 

Sierra  de  Cibao,  227 

Sierra  del  Cobre,  129 

Sierra  Maestra,  129 

Simpson's  Lagoon,  304 

Slavery,  first  introduced,  59,  60  ; 
character  and  history,  103- 
114;  in  Jamaica,  216,  218; 
in  Haiti,  234,  235,  23S  ;  in 
Puerto  Rico,  269 ;  in  Bar- 
bados, 361,  362  ;  in  Tobago, 

369 
Slave  trade,    beginning  of,   59- 

61  ;    history   of,    103-109  ;   in 

Jamaica,  216 ;  in  Barbados,  360 
Soles  de  Bolivar,  173 
Sombrero,  8,  302 
Soto,  Hernando  de,  1.43 
.Soufriere,  or  Solfatara,  in  Mont- 

serrat,     317  ;    in  Gaudeloupe, 

333.   334  ;  in  St.    Lucia,  339  ; 

in  St.  Vincent,  343 
Soulouque,  General  Faustin,  244 
South  America,  islands  attached 

to,  II  ;  immigrants  from,  25  ; 

slighted    by    Columbus,    371  ; 

observed  by  Vespucci,  371 


INDEX 


413 


Spain,  title  to  western  lands,  51  ; 
colonies  at  end  of  sixteenth 
century,  6g  ;  rights  in  West 
Indies  contested,  71  ;  exclu- 
sive claims  abandoned,  92  ; 
contests  with  England,  France, 
and  Holland,  92-102  ;  loss  of 
colonies,  loi  ;  effect  of  trade 
policy  in  Cuba,  163  ;  at  war 
with  United  States,  195  ;  end 
of  sovereignty  in  western 
hemisphere,  198  ;  evacuates 
Puerto  Rico,  285 

"  Spanish  Main,"  60,  104 

Spanish  Town,  222 

Sugar-cane,  introduced  by  Co- 
lumbus, 104  ;  effect  upon 
slavery,  105  ;  cultivation  in 
Cuba,  144 


Teach,       Edward,       the     pirate 

"  Blackbeard,"  87,  125,  384 
Testigos,  384 

Thelemaque,  General,  245 
Thomas  in  the  V^ale,  203 
Tierra  Adentro,  140 
Tison,  Thomas,  English  trader, 

63 
Tobacco,  first  cultivation,   105  ; 

in  Cuba,  144 
Tobago,  position,  6  ;  extent,  11  ; 
first  occupation,  78  ;  ceded  to 
Great    Britain,    95  ;    jiart    of 
Windward     Islands     Colony, 
288,    289  ;    description,    367, 
368  ;  history,  368,    369  ;  Cru- 
soe's island,  369 
Toledo,  Don  Frederic  de,  313 
"Tongue    of    the    Ocean,"     4, 

116 
Tordesillas,  treaty  of,  51,  71 
Tornado,  Spanish  cruiser,  179 
Tortola,  one  of  Virgin   Islands, 
8  ;  first  occupied,  76  ;  descrip- 
tion, 294 
Tortuga,  near   Haiti,   seized  by 
refugees,  75  ;  headquarters  of 
buccaneers,      82  ;     taken     by 


French,  83  ;  position  and  ex- 
tent, 227 

Tortuga,  near  Margarita,  384 

Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  Fran- 
cois Dominique,  238-240 

Trade-winds,  how  caused,  ig  ; 
general  effect,  20 

Trelawney,  Governor,  treaty 
with  the  maroons,  212 

Trelawney  Reservation,  213 

Trelawney  Town,  213 

Trinidad,  city  in  Cuba,  141,  158 

Trinidad,  island,  position,  6  ;  ex- 
tent, II  ;  discovery  and  name, 
46,  370 ;  visited  by  Raleigh, 
70,  376  ;  first  settled,  79  ;  de- 
scription, 370-375  ;  history, 
376-378;  people  and  products, 
378.  379  ;  ports  and  towns, 
3S0,  381  ;  government,  382 

Trocha,  crossing  Cuba,  130,  152; 
military  line,  Jucaro — Moron, 
185  ;  Mariel — Majana,  187 

Trois  Islets,  337 

Tucutche,  mountain  in  Trinidad, 
372 

Turks,  islands,  situation,  4  ; 
relics  of  aborigines,  27  ;  de- 
scription, 122,  123  ;  political 
connection,  127 

Twelve  League  Keys,  134 

U 

United  States,  first  possession  in 
West  Indies,  loi  ;  at  war  with 
Spain,  195  ;  takes  possession 
of  Cuba,  198  ;  takes  posses- 
sion of  Puerto  Rico,  286 

Utrecht,  treaty  of,  94,  313 

Utuado,  263,  275 


V 


Vale  of  Bath,  203 
Valladolid,  church  in,  308 
Valmaseda,  Count,  Spanish  gen- 
eral in  Cuba,  178 
Van  Home,  buccaneer.  86 
Vega  Real,  52,  229  ;  description, 
254,  255 


414 


INDEX 


Velasques,  Diego,  first  colonises 
Cuba,  56,  141,   161 

Venables,  Admiral,  with  Penn, 
captures  Jamaica,  79,  210,  360 

Venezuela,  earthquake,  343,  344  ; 
named  by  Vespucci,  371  ;  isl- 
ands off.  383-388 

Vera  Cruz,  attacked  by  bucca- 
neers, 86 

Veragua,  48 

Versailles,  treaty  of,  99,  323,  328, 
369 

Versalles,  suburb   of    Matanzas, 

Vespucci,  Amerigo,  371 

Vieques,  6,  260,  272,  277 

Viilalobos,  Marceto,  384 

Ville  de  Paris,  flagship  of  Count 
de  Grasse,  98 

Virgin  Gorda,  one  of  Virgin 
Islands,  8,  294 

Virgin  Islands,  situation,  6  ;  dis- 
covery and  name,  42  ;  resort 
of  buccaneers,  84  ;  description 
287,  293-295  ;  part  of  Lee- 
ward Islands  Colony,  290-292 

"  Virginius  affair,"  the,  179,  180 

Virgin  Passage,  277,  287 

Volcanic  eruption,  343 

Volunteers,  Cuban,  177 

Vuelta  Abajo,  140 

Vuelta  Arriba,  140 

W 

Walpole,  General,  214 

War,  effect  of,  upon  the  posses- 
sion of  islands,  92-102  ;  that 
between  the  United  States  and 
Spain,  194-197 

Warner,  Sir  Thomas,  colonises 
islands,  74,  75,  308,  312 

Watling  Island,  position,  3  ;  San 
Salvador  of  Columbus,  37  ; 
description,  122 

Watts,  governor  of  St.  Kitt's,  313 

West  End,  300,  301 

West  Indies,  origin  of  the  term, 
2;  area  and  population,  12; 
process    of   discovery,    35-50 ; 


first  introduction  of  African 
slaves,  60  ;  first  English  settle- 
ment, 74  ;  buccaneering  and 
piracy  in,  86  ;  Spain's  claims 
contested,  92  ;  final  division, 
lOT,  102  ;  slavery  in,  103-114  ; 
enigma  of  their  future  destiny, 
389-396 

West  Mountain,  295 

Weyler,  General,  governor-gen- 
eral of  Cuba,  187-190 

Willemstad,  386 

Willoughby,  Lord,  receives  grant 
from  Charles  II.,  75  ;  gov- 
ernor of  Barbados,  93,  360  ; 
grantee  of  Antigua,  309 

Wilson,  General,  285 

Windward  Islands,  origin  and 
application  of  term,  6,  7,  28S 

Windward  Islands  Colony,  2S8, 
289 ;  connection  of  Tobago 
with,  369 

Windward  Passage,  5,  16 

Wood,  General  Leonard,  197 


Xaragua,  52 
Xaymaca,  44 


Yaqui,  river  in  Haiti,  52,  229 
Vara,  town  in  Cuba,  178 
Yauco.    town    in    Puerto    Rico, 

276,  284 
Yucatan,  2  ;  original  inhabitants, 

27  ;  visited  by  Columbus,  48 
Yucatan  Channel,  15 
Yucayos,  or  Lucayos,  character- 
istics, 26 
Yumuri,  river  in  Cuba,  156 
Yunque,  EI,  de  Baracoa,  130 
Yunque,  El,  de  Luquillo,  261 


Zapata,  marsh  in  Cuba,  152 

Zatucha,  Dr.,  189 

Zeta,  name  given  by  Columbus 

to  South  American  coast,  371 
Zocapa,  fortress,  160 


Heroes  of  the  Nations. 


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GUSTAVUS  ADOLPHUS.     By  C. 

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